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ELECTRIC TRACTION 

FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



Published by the 

Mc G r&w - Hill B ool^ Comp eiriy 

^Succe^sorvS to tkeBookDepartraervts of tKe 

McGraw Publbhing Company Hill Publishing Company 

Publishers of Books for 

Electrical World Tlie Engineering and Mining JourHa! 

Engineering Record' Power and TKe Engineer 

Electric Railway Journal' American Machinist 

Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering 



n<tvl^«\Dtf\C\Ai^<\<\i\i\Ai^A«^i^«^<^«^tM^i\4^«^Af^c^C\C)<^C\<^tf^A<^<^A«^«<^ 



ELECTRIC TRACTION 

FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

A BOOK FOR STUDENTS, ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL 
ENGINEERS, SUPERINTENDENTS OF MOTIVE POWER 
AND OTHERS INTERESTED IN THE DEVELOP- 
MENT OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR 
RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE. 



BY 

EDWARD P. BURCH 



CONSULTING ENGINEER; MEMBER NEW YORK RAILROAD CLUB; MEMBER AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF 
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS; LECTURER ON ELECTRIC RAILWAYS, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA 



McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY 

239 WEST 39TH STREET, NEW YORK 

6 BOUVERIE STREET, LONDON, E. C. 

1911 



LAW 

PilHOOtCAL 



s* 






Copyright, 1911 

BY 

McGraw-Hill Book Company 



1^ 






Printed by 

The Maple Pi.:s 

York, Pa. 



;)CI.A297213 



TO 

FREDERICK S. JONES 

DEAN OF YALE COLLEGE 

GEORGE D. SHEPARDSON 

PROFESSOR OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA 

CALVIN S. GOODRICH 

PRESIDENT, TWIN CITY RAPID TRANSIT CO., MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA 

JOHN T. McCHESNEY 

PRESIDENT, EVERETT IMPROVEMENT CO., EVERETT, WASHINGTON 

IN RECOGNITION OF THE AUTHOR'S INDEBTEDNESS 



PREFACE, 



A development in electric traction for railway trains is in progress 
the extent of which is scarcely realized except by those engaged in elec- 
tric railway engineering. 

The work of electrification now completed by four large steam rail- 
roads, the New York Central, the New York, New Haven & Hartford, 
the Long Island, and the Pennsylvania, at their New York terminals, 
and by the Great Northern Railway and the Spokane and Inland 
Empire Railroad in the state of Washington, presents notable examples 
of this application of electric motive power. It has led other important 
railway companies in this country to consider the advantages of electric 
power, both for old steam roads and for all new railways. 

The opportunity which has been given railroads to utilize the advan- 
tages of electric motive power has already resulted in a remarkable 
growth. No more striking display of progress in electrical engineering 
can be obtained than that shown in the illustrations of the various 
types of electric transportation equipment built since 1906. Equipment 
has been strengthened commensurate with the needs; details of design 
and control have been perfected; manufacture, maintenance, and in- 
spection have been simplified, until the motive power of electric trains 
now presents no serious difficulties in modern railroad operation. 

No publication relating particularly to the subject of electric traction 
for railway trains has appeared in America, because the men who were 
qualified by experience and knowledge to write have not found time, or 
have been prevented by business reasons. In the writer's opinion such 
a work is needed, and this book has been published in the hope that it 
may meet this need. It is not, however, intended as a popular treatise 
upon the subject, for it is assumed that the reader has a good knowledge 
of steam and electric railway practice. 

The substance of the work was delivered in 24 lectures on electric 
railway transportation, in 1908-9-10-11, to the senior students in elec- 
trical engineering at the University of Minnesota. 

The material has been systematically collected since the year 1900, 
which marked the close of seven years' service as electrical engineer for 
the Twin City Rapid Transit Company, operating the electric railways and 
long interurban lines in and near Minneapolis and St. Paul. This was 
followed by much valuable experience on steam locomotive tests and on 

vii 



viii PREFACE 

dynamometer cars, and later in electrification plans for several steam 
roads. Electrification work throughout the country has been inspected 
and studied for use in consulting practice, the data thus collected being 
used as a basis for the material contained in the book. Viewpoints have 
been obtained from many sides and angles. Ideas of steam railroad offi- 
cials, of superintendents of motive power, of steam and electric locomotive 
enginemen, of manufacturers, and of skeptical bankers have been weighed 
and sifted. Facts, comparisons, descriptions, statistical tables, leading 
opinions, results in operation, and references to the best current litera- 
ture have been collected to constitute a book of reference for engineers. 
Manifestly all of the material and tables could not be presented, but 
special effort has been made to avoid passing judgment or stating con- 
clusions without presenting the important issues and sometimes the 
details of the case. 

In the use of the work as a text-book, emphasis should be given to a 
study of statistical tables to bring out conclusions, when, in considera- 
tion of the present status of electric railway transportation, it is possible 
to do so. Classification in itself is not valuable and stress should be laid 
on the function of the relations of the elements involved. The limitations 
on practical electrification must be observed to get good foundations for a 
study of economic problems and efficient methods of train operation. 
Technical reports by students on the relative merits of mechanical 
connections, electric systems, train equipment, on methods of develop- 
ment, and on economies of train operation will bring out good results if 
they are criticised, revised, and discussed pro and con, by the students 
themselves. 

The book is further intended as a guide for those who desire to follow 
the development and practical application of electric traction on Ameri- 
can trunk-line railroads. The history and present status are carefully 
outlined to give a preliminary survey; and in general the subjects are 
treated from the view point of steam railroad men who desire to study 
electric motive power. Data on cars, trucks, power station design, 
substation practice, manufacturer's data, wiring diagrams, etc., are not 
presented. Electric traction for street railways is not considered, and 
details of interurban railways which do not run cars in trains are omitted. 
The subject has been limited, as the title indicates, to Electric Traction 
for Railway Trains. 

Minneapolis, t-i ti -o 

September, 1911. EdWARD P. BuRCH. 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 

First-hand information has been received from a host of raikoad men, 
from consulting engineers, and from managers of properties; and their 
courtesies are appreciated, as otherwise parts of the statistical tables and 
operating data, ordinarily kept '^behind a stone wall," could not have 
been reviewed. The writer is indebted to the leading steam and electric 
railway papers, the Railway Age Gazette and the Electric Railway 
Journal, for reliable, up-to-date information, and especially for the 
stimulus received from their able and comprehensive editorials. 



DEFINITIONS. 

There are four terms, frequently used herein, to be explained: 

Railways refer to all kinds of roads where vehicles are moved on metal- 
lic rails by steam or electric motors. 

Railroads refer particularly to those railways which have 4 feet 8^. 
inches track gage; a private right-of-way and private terminals; freight 
and passenger traffic, with cars in trains; and the Master Car Builders' 
standards, for interchange of equipment with other railroads. 

Tons refer to weights of 2000 pounds; not to British or metric tons, 
of 2240 or 2204 pounds. 

Mileage refers to single-track miles, not route miles. 



TEXT -BOOKS ON THE SUBJECT OF ELECTRIC TRACTION. 

Dawson: "Electric Traction on Railways," Van Nostrand, 1909. 

Parshall and Hob art: "Electric Railway Engineering," Van Nostrand, 1907. 

Ashe and Keiley: "Electric Railways." Two volumes, Van Nostrand, 1905. 

Wilson and Lydall: "Electric Traction." Two volumes, Arnold, 1907. 

Gotshall: "Electric Railway Economics," McGraw, 1904. 

Herrick and Boynton: "American Electric Ry. Practice," McGraw, 1907. 

Armstrong: "Electric Traction," in Standard Handbook, McGraw, 1910. 

" International Electric Congress, St. Louis," McGraw, 1904. 

" Berlin-Zossen Electric Railway Tests of 1903," McGraw, 1905. 

" Report of the Electric Railway Test Commission," McGraw, 1906. 



ELEMENTARY BOOKS FOR TRAINMEN AND BEGINNERS. 

NoRRis: "Study of Electrical Engineering," Wiley, 1908. 
Houston and Kennelly: "Electric Street Railways," McGraw, 1906. 
Parham and Shedd: "Shop Tests on Car Equipment," McGraw, 1909. 
Aylmer-Small: "Electrical Railroading," Drake, 1908. 
GuTMANN-GouLD : "The Motorman and His Duties," McGraw, 1907. 



LITERATURE AVAILABLE FOR GENERAL STUDY. 

Electric Railway Journal, New York. 

Electric Traction Weekly, Chicago. 

Railway Age Gazette, New York. 

The Electrician, London. 

Zeitschrift Des Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure, Berlin. 

State Railroad Commission, Annual Reports. 

Interstate Commerce Commission, Annual Reports. 

American Electric Railway Engineering Assoc, Reports. 

Census Bulletin on Electric Railways, 1902-1907. 

American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Transactions. 



CONTENTS. 

I. History and Present Status of Electric traction ... \^ 

II. Characteristics of Modern Steam Locomotives .... 50 

III. Advantages of Electric Traction for Trains .... 86 ^^^ 

IV. Electric Systems Available for Traction 126 

V. Electric Railway Motors for Trains 158 

VI. Motor-car Trains 224 

VII. Characteristics of Electric Locomotives 266 f>^ 

VIII. Technical Description of Direct-current Locomotives. 302 

IX. Technical Description of Three-phase Locomotives . . 338 

X. Technical Description of Single-phase Locomotives . . 354 

XI. Power Required for Trains 400 

XII. Transmission and Contact Lines 432 

XIII. Steam, Gas, and Water Power Plants 466 

XIV. Procedure in Railroad Electrification 496 ^ 

XV. Work Done in Railroad Electrification 530 

Index 571 



XI 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR 
RAILWAY TRAINS 



CHAPTER I. 
HISTORY AND PRESENT STATUS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION. 

Outline. 

Introduction. Third-rail Lines. 

First Electric Railways. Subways and Tunnels. 

Practical Street Railways. Motor-car Trains. 

Experimental Work. Mountain-grade Lines. 

Interurban Electric Ra/lways. Railroad Terminals. 

Competition with Steam Roads. Switching Yards. 

Private Right-of-Way. Freight Service. 

Elevated Railways. Electric Locomotives. 

Electric Traction by Electric Railways for Ordinary Service. 
Electric Traction by Steam Railroads for Special Situations. 
Electric Traction in General Use for Trains for Economic Reasons. 
Earnings and Mileage of Railways Operating Electric Trains. 
Steam and Electric Railway Statistics Summarized. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The history of electric traction for railway-train service is studied 
in order to understand the progress which has been made during the past 
twenty years in transportation methods, and to understand the service 
conditions surrounding the application of electric power. This study 
gives a proper view point for a perspective, it gages the value of present 
endeavor, and it outlines the magnitude of some of the problems 
which are now before railway companies. 

The history of transportation shows clearly that improvements in 
motive power and methods are attained only by slow development and 
careful experiment; also that railway service demands economy of power, 
ample capacity, reasonable designs, flexibility, and interchangeable 
equipment; for without these things the best results are not obtained, 
and investments are not most productive. 

The history of railway electrical engineering may state the sequence 
and nature of the development, but it should also review both the 

1 



2 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

mistakes and the triumphs of the past; and when the elements in the 
advancement of transportation are so presented, they form an induce- 
ment to present thought and endeavor. 

In a study of railway electrical engineering it is well to acquire specific 
information on approved modern engineering methods, and a good 
knowledge of the technology of railways. A study should develop the 
relations of separated features, and bring out the economic principles 
underlying all transportation work. 

FIRST ELECTIC RAILWAYS. 

The years 1830 to 1860 mark the first period of experiment in the 
application of electrical energy for transportation. The work of experi- 
menters was limited to the application of permanent magnets and recip- 
rocating motion, and by the lack of serviceability and capacity from 
chemical batteries. 

About 1835, Thomas Davenport, of Brandon, Vermont, made over 
100 models of electric railway motor cars, which he operated by batteries. 
One patent specified "the production of rotary motion by repeated 
changes of magnet poles," and the use of a commutator. Third-rail 
conductors and track-return circuits were used. Elec. World, Oct. 
6, 1910. 

In 1842, Davidson built a 7-ton, 2-axle car for the Edinburgh-Glasgow 
Railway. Each axle carried a wooden cylinder on which were fastened 
three bars of iron, parallel to the axle. Four electromagnets were arranged 
in pairs on each side of each cylinder. Current was produced by 
an iron-zinc sulphuric acid battery. The electromagnets attracted the 
bars on the cylinder, then alternately the current was cut off and on, and 
rotation was produced. A speed of four miles per hour was obtained. 
Aspinwall, to Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 1910. 

In 1847, Lilley and Cotton, of Pittsburg, and also Moses G. Farmer, 
of Dover, N. H., operated small cars in which, with electricity from a 
battery, alternate attraction and repulsion of magnets produced motion. 

In 1851, Thomas Hall, of Boston, exhibited an electric motor car 
at the Mechanics' Fair. An electro-magnetic armature revolved between 
the poles of a permanent magnet. 

In 1851, C. G. Page, of Washington, D. C, employed a 100-cell nitric- 
acid battery. His car received motion from two solenoids, or hollow 
magnets, which alternately attracted cores on a plunger. This recipro- 
cating motion was transmitted to the wheels by means of a crank. A 
speed of 19 m. p. h. was attained, yet very few improvements were made, 
and the car was dubbed the ''electro-magnetic humbug." 

Between 1860 and 1866, dynamos or electric generators were being 



HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 3 

developed; yet it was some time before it was discovered that an electric 
generator could drive a similar machine, now called a motor. 

In 1867, Moses G. Farmer operated a car with a motor and dynamo. 

In 1879, Siemens and Halske, at the Berlin Industrial Exhibition, 
propelled a miniature locomotive and three cars, with electric power 
from a dynamo. The track rails, 1000 feet long, formed a 160-volt circuit. 
Spur and bevel gears were used to transmit the power from a 3-h.p. 
motor. This demonstration was repeated at Brussels and Dusseldorf, 
also at Frankfort, in 1881. See photograph in St. Ry. Journ., Oct. 8, 1904, 
p. 536. 

In 1880, Thomas A. Edison at Menlo Park, New Jersey, ran a small 
locomotive, using power from a dynamo. See section on electric loco- 
motives in this chapter. 




Fig. 1. — Electric Motor Car and Train. Van Depoele, Toronto, 1884. 



In 1881, Stephen D. Field ran a large motor car at Stockbridge, 
Massachusetts, using a dynamo, a positive wire enclosed in a conduit, and 
a track-rail return. 

In 1881, Siemens operated cars at the Paris Exposition with current 
from an overhead slotted tube in which a contact shoe slid, and power 
was transmitted by the motor to the axle thru a chain; and, in 1885, at 
the Vienna Exposition, a 150-volt Siemens dynamo supplied current thru 
two insulated rails to a motor in a car. 

In 1883, Van Depoele built experimental and exhibition lines at 
Chicago, and used an overhead trolley wire, an over-running trolley wheel, 



4 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

held in position by ballast, the trolley wheel being connected to the car by 
means of a flexible cable. 

In 1884, Van Depoele ran an electric railway train at the Toronto 
Exposition, using a 1000-volt contact line in an underground conduit, 
3000 feet long; and again in 1885, on a one-mile road. Van Depoele used 
an under-running trolley, and patented the scheme. 

In 1884, Daft built an electric railway on one of the piers at Coney 
Island; and used the track rails for the two conductors. This was repeated 
at expositions in Boston and in New Orleans. 

First Public Electric Cars for City Streets (1880-1888).— In 1881, 
Siemens and Halske constructed a short commercial road, at Lichterfelde, 
near Berlin. Two insulated track rails were used in a 180-volt circuit. 



_.;t!__ 



Fig. 2. — Daft Electeic Motok Car, Baltimore, 1884. 

The wheel tire was insulated from the hub by a wooden band. Later an 
overhead trolley line, with a rolling contact at the wire, was used. See 
photograph in St. Ry. Journ., Oct. 8, 1904, p. 535. The road is now 
running as a 600- volt trolley line. 

In 1883, Siemens cars were operated in Paris, London, and elsewhere, 
by storage batteries with 5-h.p., 100-volt motors. 

In 1883, Siemens and Halske constructed a third-rail, narrow-gage 
line, 6 miles long, the Portrush Railway near the Giants' Causeway, in 
northern Ireland, obtaining from a water-fall the power for operating a 
250-volt, direct-current dynamo. 

In 1884, E. M. Bentley and Walter H. Knight operated in Cleveland, 
Ohio, a road having two miles of underground conduit, placed between 
the rails. This installation was perhaps the first in which the cars were 



HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 5 

driven by a series motor, placed under the car floor. Wire-rope and 
sprocket-chain drive, and later, bevel gearing, were tried. The road was 
operated about one year. See Martin and Wetzler's ''The Electric Motor," 
1887; St. Ry. Journ., Feb., 1889; Bentley, Elec. World, March 5, 1904. 

In 1884, Daft operated a pioneer line, 2 miles long, for the Union 
Passenger Railway Co., between Baltimore and Hampden. Two 3-ton 
motor cars were used to haul trailers. The over-running trolley and a 
third-rail contact were both installed. The motors were a series, 130- 
volt, direct-current, single-geared type. Elec. World, March 5, 1904. 

In 1885, John C. Henry built an electric railroad in Kansas City. 




f'iG. 3. — Electric Locomotive Car and Train. Van Depoele, Minneapolis, 1883. 



There were two cars, each equipped with a 7-h.p., 250-volt, direct- 
current motor. The overhead trolley wires were 10 inches apart, and 
two pairs of over-running trolley wheels were held by springs in lateral 
contact with each wire, the trolley w^heels being mounted on a single 
carriage, and connected with the motors by means of flexible cables. 
The creditors received 8 cents on a dollar. Elec. World, Oct. 20, 1910, 
p. 934. 

In 188G, Van Depoele, working at Minneapolis for the Minneapolis, 
Lyndale and Minnetonka Railv/ay, which had been obliged to discontinue 
the use of steam locomotives in the business portions of the city, equipped 
an electric locomotive car for hauling trains. 



6 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 




Fig. 4. — Standard Street Car and Motive Power, 1870-1890. 




Fia, 5. — Uaft Electric Motor Car. Mansfield, Ohio, 1887. 



HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 



A Wesfcon bipolar, 20-h.p. motor, with spocket-chain drive to an axJe, was 
located above the floor line of a 4-wheeled open car. Current was taken from an 
overhead copper wire by means of an over-running, ballasted trolley, which was 
attached to the car body by flexible cables. A 12x18 slide-valve engine, belted to an 
electric generator, furnished energy, which was transmitted from 2 to 3 miles. 
Four 10-ton open excursion coaches, having a loaded weight with passengers of about 
60 tons, were hauled on the level, but two were a load for the curves and grades. 
The trial line was 1.5 miles long, and contained one long 3.5 per cent, grade and two 
sharp curves. Mr. Thomas J. Janney, superintendent of the road, recently stated to 
the writer that, while the equipment was crude, it had many of the elements for 
success. The president of the road decided that the overhead construction at curves 
and the serious arcing at the rail joints could not be remedied. The heavy main- 
tenance expense and lack of capacity in the electric motor caused it to be condemned, 
and it was abandoned for a soda motor. St. Ry. Journ., Oct. 8, 1904, p. 560. <1 

A summary on public street railways to i888 shows that cars were 
generally propelled by horses or mules. Animal power was expensive to 
operate, depreciation was rapid, service was slow, and sufficient drawbar 
pull and speed were not available. Experiments without number had 
been tried with steam engines, electric motors, gas, hot-air, and chemical 
motors, as the motive power for local railway transportation. Electric 
street railways were simply an experiment. 

EARLY ELECTRIC STREET RAILWAYS IN AMERICA. ^ 



Year Month. 



Engineer. 



Miles. 


Cars. 


2.0 


3 


2.0 


3 




2 




1 


1.0 


i: 


1.0 


3 


0.5 


1 


1.5 


1 


1.2 


2 


5.0 


5 


2.7 


4 


1.0 


1 


3.7 


4 


5.0 


1' 




12 


1.0 


1 



Motors. 



Location of road. 



1884 I July I Bentley and Knight. 

1885 i Aug. I Leo Daft 

1885 John C.Henry 

1885 JohnC. Henry 



1-14 h.p 

1-8 

1-7 



1885 

1885 
1885 
1886 
1886 
1886 
1886 
1886 
1886 



Oct. 

Oct. 

Oct. 

Jan. 

June 

July 

Sept. 

Sept. 

Oct. 



C. J. Van Depoele. . 

C. J. Van Depoele. 

S. H. Short 

C. J. Van Depoele, 
C. J. Van Depoele, 
C. J. Van Depoele, 
I C. J. Van Depoele, 
I C. J. Van Depoele, 
F. E.Fisher 



1886 Nov. C. J. Van Depoele. 

1886 Nov. I C. J. Van Depoele . 
1886 Dec. ' Leo Daft 



1-5 
1-10 

1- 

1-8 

1-20 

1-20 

1-10 

1-15 



1-10 

1-15 
2-12 



Cleveland, O. 
Baltimore, Md. 
Kansas City, Mo. 
Orange, N. J. 

South Bend, Ind. 

Toronto, Ont. 
Denver, Colo. 
Minneapolis, Minn. 
Windsor, Ont. 
Appleton, Wis. 
Port Huron, Mich. 
Detroit, Mich. 
Detroit, Mich. 

Scranton, Pa. 

Montgomery, Ala. 
Orange, N. J. 



See references on early electric railways at end of this chapter. 



8 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

EARLY ELECTRIC STREET RAILWAYS IN AMERICA.— Con^m?/ed. 



Year. Month. 



Engineer. 



Miles. 


Cars. 


Motors. 


4.0 


8 


1-15 


4.0 


6 
1 
1 
1 




1.0 


2 


1-18 


4.0 


3 




7.0 


2 


2-7 


4.0 


18 


1-12 


3.0 


9 


1-20 


1.0 


■ 2 


2-7 


4.4 











Location of road. 



1887 


July 


1887 


Aug. 


1887 


Aug. 


1887 


Aug. 


1887 


Sept. 


1887 


Sept. 


1887 


Nov. 


1887 


Oct. 


1887 


Oct. 


1887 


Oct. 


1887 


Oct. 


1887 


Nov. 


1888 


Jan. 


1888 


Jan. 



C. J. Van Depoele 

Leo Daft 

Leo Daft 

F. J. Sprague 

F. E. Fisher 

S. H. Short 

S. H. Short 

W. M. Schlesinger 

C. F. Adams 

C. J. Van Depoele 

Leo Daft 

John C. Henry. . . . 

Leo Daft 

Bentley-Knight . . . 



Lima, Ohio. 
Los Angeles, Cal. 
Mansfield, O. 
St. Joseph, Mo. 
San Jose, Cal. 
Columbus, O. 
Huntington, W. Va. 
Philadelphia, Pa. 
Wichita, Kansas. 
St. Catharines, Ont. 
Asbury Park, N. J. 
San Diego, Cal. 
Ithaca, N. Y. 
Allegheny City, Pa. 



PRACTICAL STREET RAILWAYS. 

The first practical electric street railway embodied many of the essen- 
tial features of modern practice. It was installed by the Sprague Elec- 
tric Railway & Motor Co. for an 11-mile railway, with 10 per cent, grades, 
at Richmond, Va., and was operated in February, 1888. Energy was 
furnished from a central station by a 300-h.p. steam engine and a 450- 
volt direct-current, belted generator, and was transmitted by copper con- 
ductors to small cars, each equipped with two 7-h.p. series-wound motors. 
Thirty cars were in operation by July, 1888. 

Mr. Frank J. Sprague in the Transactions of the International Elec- 
tric Congress, St. Louis, 1904, Vol. Ill, p. 331, has summarized the 
features of this now historic road at Richmond. 

''Distribution was effected by an overhead line circuit over the center of the 
track, reinforced by a continuous main conductor, in turn supplied at central dis- 
tributing points by feeders from a constant potential plant, operated at about 450 
volts, with reinforced track return. The current was taken from an overhead line, 
at first by fixed upper-pressure contacts, and subsequently by a wheel carried on a 
pole supported over the center of the car and having free, up-and-down, reversible 
movement. The motors were centered on the axles, and geared to them, at first by 
single, and then by double-reduction gearing, the outer ends being spring-supported 
from the car body so that the motors were individually free to follow every variation 
of axle movement, and yet maintain at all times a yielding touch upon the gears in 
absolute parallelism. All the weight of the car was available for traction, and the 
cars could be operated in either direction from either end of the car. The controlling 
system was at first by graded resistances, afterward by variation of the field coils 
from series to multiple relations, and series-parallel control of armatures, by a sepa- 
rate switch. Motors were run in both directions with fixed brushes, at first laminated 
ones placed at an angle, and later solid metallic ones with radial bearings." 



HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 9 

The Development of Practical Street Railways (1888- 1896). — Sprague 
md his associates now proceeded to convince street railway managers that 
electric power could be made an economical substitute for animal, steam, 
md cable traction. Sprague electric railway lines in 1890 included 
Minneapolis, with 100 cars; St. Paul, 80 cars; Cleveland, 99 cars; St. 
Louis, 80 cars; Tacorha, 56 cars; Pittsburg, 45 cars; Richmond, 42 cars; 
n all 89 roads and 2080 motor cars. Electrical Engineer, N. Y., April 
10, 1890. 

Thomson -Houston Electric Co. absorbed the Van Depoele interests in 
L888. Its equipment was similar to that used by Sprague, and included 
^wo double-reduction, geared motors per car. One distinguishing feature 
kVas an excellent controller, for parallel and later for series-parallel opera- 
ion of motors, in Avhich a magnetic blow-out devised by Elihu Thomson 
vas used. Its first lines were in practical service at Revere Beach, Bos- 
ton, with one car, July 4, 1888; at Washington, D. C, also at Seattle in 
L888; and at Minneapolis in 1889. St. Ry. Jour., 1889, p. 374. Thom- 
son-Houston railway lines in 1890 included Boston, with 127 cars running 
md 130 ordered; Omaha, 30 cars; St. Paul, 8 cars; in all 61 roads and 
131 motor cars. Electrical Engineer, N. Y., April 16, 1890. 

Short Electric Co., which had built lines in Denver in 1885, 
ntroduced single-reduction, geared and gearless, motors in 1891. 

Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Co., of Pittsburg, entered' 
Me electric railway field in 1890 with single-reduction, geared motors. 

General Electric Co., of Schenectady, was formed in 1891 as a con- 
solidation of the Thomson-Houston, the Edison General Electric, the 
sprague, and other companies. It obtained the patent rights to the 
nventions of Van Depoele, Bentley, Knight, Thomson, and Sprague. 

General Electric and Westinghouse Companies have fostered most of 
:he important American electric railway development since 1893. Patent 
itigation was stopped when the two companies entered into contracts, in 
1896 and 1899, w^hich embodied an exchange of licenses for the joint use 
)f the patents of each company. This interchange was advantageous, 
'or it developed a high degree of co-operation in engineering and in 
nnanufacture. 

Allis-Chalmers Co., which consolidated E. P. Allis & Co., Bullock 
Electric Manufacturing Co., and others, about 1896, has furnished much 
3f the power-plant equipment, but little of the electric motor and trans- 
mission equipments for railways. 

Conduit railways, which avoid overhead wires by placing the trolley 
::;onductor in a conduit, as in cable railway systems, were successfully 
installed and operated in Budapest in 1889, in Washington, D. C, in 
1895, and in New York in 1896. Few roads have been built in America, 
because the construction cost exceeds $60,000 per single-track mile. 



10 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Conduit roads have been built in Paris, Beriin, Brussels, Vienna, Lyons, 
Nice, Bordeaux, and London. 

Suburban roads were a simple development of the street rail- 
way. These lines which ran to the territory bordering the limits of 
the city at first were 3 to 5 miles long, but they now extend even 12 
miles. Electric lines running on public streets from the heart of the 
larger European and American cities gave rise to numerous resident 
and manufacturing districts situated a considerable distance from the 
city. The suburban roads resulted from the increase in population and 
an appreciation by the public of electric transportation. Frequent ser- 
vice, rather than high speed, was the distinguishing feature. 

EXPERIMENTAL WORK. 

Experimental Work of all Kinds was Done until 1895. — Electricity 
had now been recognized as an improved power for street railway trac- 
tion. The cost of the development of equipment was so expensive, how- 
ever, that it could not be borne by the inventors themselves, or by 
the manufacturing companies, and much of it was assumed by energetic 
electric railway companies. To such an extent, indeed, did they burden 
themselves in this way, that it is remarkable that more of them did not 
fall into the hands of receivers. Motor equipment which was started 
with confidence often proved too expensive to operate. It was there- 
fore abandoned, and replaced by an entirely new equipment, sometimes 
on the suggestion of a manufacturing company, but generally on the 
recommendation of the electrical engineer and the master mechanic of 
the operating company. Large sums of money were allowed for experi- 
mental purposes by the managers of these pioneer electric railways. 
Engineers and operators were put on their mettle, and their courage, 
ingenuity, and ability produced results. It was their opportunity and 
their duty to progress in this new field. Valuable improvements were 
readily accepted; apparatus was superseded when better was developed. 

In these early days, after the advantages of electric power were appar- 
ent, the stockholders and the public were willing to have improvements 
tried, provided they were not greatly inconvenienced thereby. The 
manufacturer who now-a-days installs equipment which has not been 
thoroly tried, or who plans experiments on a large scale at the expense and 
inconvenience of the public, is condemned. 

About 1896, stockholders of electric railways began to receive divi- 
dends on their investments. Suitable and economical power plants 
were built, overhead construction was simplified, insulation of electric 
motor windings was improved, cost of maintenance of equipment was 
reduced, service became reliable, and experimental work was lessened. 



HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 11 

A SUMMARY OF DISCARDED IDEAS IN ELECTRIC TRACTION. 
"Count your Failures, not your Successes." 

Many engineering ideas were well tried, and then abandoned, between 
1885 and 1895, certain apparatus was found to be unsuitable for ordinary 
electric railway work; and the following have not since been used: 

Batteries, primary and storage. 

Over-running trolley; rigid or inflexible trolley contact; two trolleys 
for city streets. 

Unprotected third rail; a third rail between track rails; or a third- 
rail on elevated posts. 

Conduit systems for ordinary electric railway traffic; and surface 
contact systems, to avoid the use of the trolley. 

Track rails for conducting the positive electric current. 

Insulation of track rails from the earth. 

Rail returns, without adequate bonding at the rail joints. 

Use of the soil, rivers, or lakes for a heavy return-current circuit; and 
the artificial grounding of rails. 

Magnetic braking, in ordinary railway-train service. 

Magnetic adhesion increasers between rails and wheels to improve 
the tractive friction or the economy of operation. See Elec. Ry. Journ. 
Dec. 13, 1909, p. 1240; electric gearing, Elec. World, July 21, 1910, p. 166. 

Magnetic systems, wherein alternate attraction and repulsion of 
magnets produced reciprocating motion, to propel the car. 

Motors placed above the floor at the end of passenger cars. 

Continuous rotation of armature to retain its kinetic energy. 

Connection between armature and car axle by means of a magnetic 
coupling and quill, or a friction clutch; friction wheels, pulleys, grooves, 
and disks; wire rope, belt, and chain drive; sprockets and links; cranks 
near the middle of the axle; bevel gear, worm gear. 

Long-distance transmission of direct-current power. 

Direct-current series systems. — Short experimented at Denver, 1885. 
See: Sperry, A. I. E. E., June, 1892; Dalemont, Elec. World, Oct. 14, 
1909; Adams, Elec. Ry. Journ., Sept., 1900, page 810. 

Regeneration of direct-current power. 

Shunt-wound and compound-wound motors; one motor per car. 

Control of motors with liquid resistance, — S. D. Field, about 1886. 
Control of motors with wire resistance on field magnets. Control of 
motors by a variation of field coils from series to multiple relation, — 
Field, in 1886; Sprague,in 1888. Control of motor speeds by weakening 
the field. Control of motors involving two commutators per motor. 

Brushes of copper; variation of position of brushes with load or direc- 
tion of motion; positions other than radial. Relatively large magneto- 
motive force in direct-current armatures. 



12 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Field poles without field coils mounted thereon. The well-known 
'' W. P." motor of 1891 had consequent poles. 

Armatures with a large diameter, and fly-wheel effect. Gearless 
armatures, mounted on the axle without an elastic coupling to absorb 
switch and crossing shocks, curve thrusts, and track variations. 

Motor frames insulated from axles, supports, or rails; motors unpro- 
tected from dust, snow, and water of roadbed; motors with unnecessary 
dead weight, and motor mounting without spring supports. 

Mechanical and electrical equipments which were suitable for city or 
interurban trolley lines, for electric train service. 

INTERURBAN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS (1890). 

Interuban railways were a development from the street and suburban 
railways. In the whole history of transportation, no development has 
been more important and wonderful than that of the electric interurban 
railways. It comprises the period from 1890 to 1894, when many short 
interurban lines were built, then the period of hard times, from 1893 to 
1896, when many of these lines were in the hands of receivers, followed by 
the period, from 1897 to 1907, characterized by gradual increase in the 
length and capacity of interurban roads, by the use of larger cars and 
heavier motors, by greater investments and more economical power 
plants; and, still more recently, by a development which, following steam- 
railroad practice, involves the use of a complete private right-of-way from 
terminal to terminal, the operation of motor cars in trains, freight ser- 
vice with motor cars and electric locomotives, and the thru routing of 
interstate traffic. 

Interurbans several years ago reached the limit of their development 
for local traffic, and their present advance is toward long-haul freight and 
passenger traffic in competition, or in conjunction, with steam railroads. 
They fill an important position between the street railway and the steam 
railroad. Some interurbans are mere trolley lines; others have nearly 
every function of a railroad. 

The development of long interurban roads was impossible until after 
the introduction of economical long-distance power transmission by the 
Tesla three-phase, high-voltage system. Niagara power was not sent to 
Buffalo, only 22 miles away, until November 16, 1896. 

Car service has been perfected to outlying amusement parks, and to 
bathing beaches, where recreation is obtainable at a minimum expense. 
By improving the facilities for travel, they have provided for a diffusion 
of city population, and have so developed country life that rural land 
values have increased. 

Interurban passenger service, between many cities of the central and 
western states, equals, in passenger equipment and speed, that of the 



HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 



13 



steam railroads of the district; and, in convenience and frequency of 
service, excel them beyond comparison. The long, vestibuled cars, 
M. C. B. trucks, high-speed motors, service with a limited number of 
stops, two-car trains, dining-car service (as on the Chicago & Milwaukee 
Electric R. R., Aurora, Elgin & Chicago R. R.), roadbeds of stone ballast, 
standard Tee-rails, a complete private right-of-way including terminals, 
adequate power houses, telephone dispatching, block signals, and auto- 
matic brakes render possible a high degree of speed with absolute safety. 
These interurban roads are profitable and permanent investments. 

Interurban railways are often common carriers, with the right of 
eminent domain, and are subject to the reasonable control and police 
power of the municipalities which they connect and thru which they are 
operated, and to the state railroad commission. 

The historical development in America is now tabulated briefly. 



INTERURBAN RAILWAY DEVELOPMENT, 1890-1910. 



Name of railway. 


Terminal cities. 


Miles. 


Year. 


Twin City Rapid Transit 

Lake Shore Electric 


Minneapolis — St. Paul 


9 


1890 


Sandusky — Norwalk 


17 


1893 




Toledo — Norwalk 


62 
19 


1900 




Toledo — Norwalk — Cleveland 


1902 


Cleveland, Berea, Elyria 


Cleveland — Berea 


14 


1894 




Cleveland — Berea — Oberlin 


34 


1901 


Akron, Bedford & Cleveland. . 


Cleveland — Akron 


35 

58 


1895 


(the first real interurban) 


Cleveland — Akron — Canton 


1901 


International Traction 


Buffalo — Niagara Falls 

Lowell — Lynn, Mass 

St. Paul— Stillwater 


22 
26 


1895 




1896 


Minneapolis St. Paul Suburban. 


23 


1898 


Puget Sound Electric 


Seattle — Tacoma 


34 

46 

72 


1902 


Boston & Worcester 


Boston — Worcester . ....... 


1903 


Terre Haute, Ind. & Eastern. . 


Terre Haute — Indianapolis 


1906 




Terre Haute — Indianapohs — Rich- 


140 


1907 




mond. 






Spokane & Inland Empire. .*. . 


Spokane — Moscow, Idaho 


91 


1907 


Fort Wayne & Wabash Valley. 


Ft. Wayne — Lafayette 


114 


1907 


Indianapolis & Columbus, and 


Indianapolis — Louisville, Ky 


117 


1907 


Indianapolis & Louisville. 








Indiana Union Traction 


Indianapolis — Ft. Wayne 


124 


1907 


Ohio Electric Railway 


Ft. Wayne— Lima— Toledo 


137 


1907 




Toledo — Lima — Dayton, 


164 


1907 




Toledo — Lima — Columbus, 


187 


1909 


Western Ohio Electric 


Toledo— Dayton, Ohio 


162 


1907 


Illinois Traction 


St. Louis — Springfield — Peoria 

St. Louis — Springfield — Danville . . . 


172 


1909 




2 7 


1908 



14 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

INTERURBAN RAILWAY DEVELOPMENT, 1890-1910.— Continued. 



Name of railway. 


Terminal cities. 


Miles. 


Year. 


Spveral coniDanies 


Toledo — Dayton 


162 
187 
125 
173 
160 
175 
145 


1908 


Thru service 


Toledo — Columbus, Ohio 

Chicaffo — ^Freeport, 111 


1908 
1908 




Indianapolis — Michigan City, Ind. . 
Cleveland — Lima, Ohio 


1910 
1910 




Cleveland — Detroit 


1910 




Detroit — Kalamazoo 


1910 









See: ''Historical Interurban Roads," Elec. Ry. Journ., 1909, p. 571. 

Exclusive of street railways, there are in Indiana 2300 miles, in Ohio 
2600 miles, and in Illinois 1500 miles of interurban road. 

Illinois Traction Company has the longest interurban routes and the 
heaviest freight service; and has operated sleeping cars for six years. 

Indianapolis is the great interurban railway center. 

Pacific Electric Railway has 560 miles of track, operates one- to five- 
car passenger trains, and 58 freight trains, out of Los Angeles daily, on 
fourteen 10- to 40-mile electric routes. 



INTERURBAN RAILWAY PASSENGER TRAFFIC, 1910. 



Name of principal ci'.y. 



Population 
in 1910. 



Radial 
routes. 



Cars 
dailv. 



Los Angeles 

Indianapolis 

Cleveland 

Toledo 

Detroit 

Dayton 

Rochester 

Buffalo 

Columbus, O 

Ft. Wayne 

Milwaukee 

Minneapolis — St. Paul 



319,000 
233,000 
560,000 
168,000 
466,000 
116,000 
218,000 
424,000 
181,000 
64,000 
374,000 
516,000 



14 
12 



650 
318 
155 
173 
190 
155 



116 
100 

100 



The development of the most important interurban railways in each 
state is shown by the tables which follow. 

The order of listing of tables is geographical, east to west. 



HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 



15 




Fig. 6. — Map of Interurban Lines in new England States, 1910. 

INTERURBAN RAILWAYS. 





Name of terminal cities. 


Distance 

between 

cities. 


Track mileage. 


Name of electric railway. 


Inter- 
urban. 


Grand 
total. 


Lewiston, Augusta & Waterville 




55 
35 
40 


83 

60 

60 

300 


140 


Atlantic Shore Line 

view Hampshire Electric 


Portsmouth — Townhouse 


110 
110 


Massachusetts Electric Co. : 




933 


Boston & Northern Division 








Old Colony Southern Division 










Boston & Worcester Electric 


Boston — Worcester 


46 


80 


82 









16 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

INTERURBAN RAILWAYS— Continued. 





• 




Track mileage. 




Name of terminal cities. 


Distance 

between 

cities. 






Name of electric railway. 


Inter- 


Grand 






urban. 


total. 


New York, New Haven & Hartford: 








1500 


The Rhode Island Company 

The Connecticut Company 


Providence — W^orcester 


45 


200 


319 


City and interurban 




300 


780 


Shore Line Electric 


New Haven — Ivoryton . . . 


52 


52 


53 


Albany Southern R R 


Albany — Hudson . . 


37 


38 


62* 


Hudson Valley Ry .... 


Troy — Glen Falls 


48 1 








Saratoga — Warrensburg 


35} 


88 


149 


Delaware & Hudson, and New York 


Albany — Troy — Cohoes 


11 


35 


96 


Central, and United Traction Co. 










New York Central & Hudson River: 




22 


500 


800 


New York State Rys Co 

The Mohawk Valley Co. 


















16 


58 




Utica & Mohawk Valley Ry 


Utica — Little Falls 


23 


127 




West Shore R. R 




44 


44 




Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville R. R. 


Gloversville — Schenectady 


36 


65 


85 


Ostego & Herkimer R.R 




60 


58 


76 


Rochester, Syracuse & Eastern 


Syracuse — Rochester 


86 


105 


165* 


Buffalo, Lockport & Rochester 


Rochester — Lockport 


57 


57 


61 


International Traction. . . 


Lockport — Buffalo 

Buffalo — Niagara Falls. 


25 


88 


374 










Buffalo & Lake Erie 


Buffalo — Erie 


88 


80 


173 


Dominion Power & Transmission 


Hamilton — Beamsville — Oak- 
land — Brantford. 




70 


107 


Mahoning & Shenango 


^^estern Pennsylvania 


37 


70 


149* 


Pittsburg, Harmony, Butler & N. C . . 


Pittsburg — New Castle 


50 


63 


67 


West Penn Ry 


McKeesport — Connellsville 

Philadelphia — Norristown 


50 


80 


125 


Philadelphia & Western R. R. 


17 


17 


40* 


Public Service Corporation 


Traction lines, New Jersey 

Wilkes-Barre — Scranton — Car- 


27 


200 


720 


Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley 


23 


45 


50* 




bondale. 








Wilkes-Barre & Hazelton 


Hazelton — Wilkes-Barre 

Philadelphia — Allentown 

Washington — Baltimore 


31 

47 


32 
100 


34 


Lehigh Valley Transit. 


144 


Washington, Baltimore & Annapolis . . 


41 


96 


100 


Maryland Electric Rys 


Baltimore — Annapolis short line. 
Cleveland — Ashtabula 


26 


26 


35* 


Cleveland, Painesville & Eastern 


59 


45 


75 


Northern Ohio Traction 


Cleveland — Canton 


59 1 
38/ 








Canton — New Philadelphia 


51 


215 


Cleveland, Southwestern & Columbus . 


Cleveland — Wooster 


57 1 


150 


243 




Cleveland — Bucyrus 


116 J 


Lake Shore Electric 


Cleveland — Toledo 


119 


170 


215 


Ohio Electric 




65 "" 










Lima — Toledo 


72 
40 










Lima — Defiance 






Lima — Springfield — Columbus. . . 


110 












54 




450 


850 




Dayton — Richmond 


40 










Dayton — Cincinnati 


55 










Dayton — Columbus 


76 










Columbus — Zanesville 


64 








Western Ohio 


Dayton — Toledo 

Findlay — Celina 


150 










68/ 


84 


113 


Eastern Ohio Traction 


Cleveland — Garrettsville 


50 


60 


94 


Columbus, Delaware & Marion 




45 


51 


77 













* These roads operate passenger cars in trains, and handle freight under the Master Car Builders 
rules of interchange. 



HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 
INTERURBAN RAILWAYS— Continued. 



17 







Distance 


Track mileage. 


Name of electric railway. 


Name of terminal cities. 


between 
cities. 


Inter- 
urban. 


Grand 
total. 


Scioto Valley Traction 


Columbus — Chillicothe 


47 


77 


79 


Cincinnati, Georgetown & Portsmouth. 


Cincinnati — Georgetown 


41 


40 


57* 


Cincinnati & Columbus Traction 


Cincinnati — Hillsboro 


51 


48 


57 


Windsor, Essex & Lake Shore 


Windsor — Leamington, Ont 


36 


36 


40* 


Detroit United Ry 


Detroit — Port Huron . . . 


74] 
125 








Detroit — Bay City 








Detroit — Toledo 


56^ 
76 J 


247 


750 




Detroit — Jackson 








68 \ 
37/ 
59 








Jackson— St. Johns 


125 


254 


Toledo & Western R.R 


Toledo — Pioneer — ^Adrian 


80 


84 


Toledo, Fostoria & Findlay 


Toledo — Findlay 


52 


100 


121 


Fort Wayne & Northern Indiana 


Fort Wayne — Lafayette 


114 


150 


212 


Terre Haute, Indiana p'l's & Eastern. 


Indianapolis — Terre Haute 


72" 










Indianapolis — Richmond . 


69 




349 


400 






69 






Indianapolis — Crawfordsville .... 


52. 










Indianapolis — Greensburg 

Indianapolis — Connersville 


49^ 










58 J 


i . 


49 


112 


Indiana Union Traction 


Indianapolis — Union City 

Indianapolis — Bluffton 


90^ 
99 










Indianapolis — Wabash. ... 


92 




314 


373* 




Indianapolis — Logansport 


80 


^ 








Indianapolis — Peru ... 


77 










Indianapolis — Fort Wayne 


124 








Indianapolis, Crawsfordsville & West- 


Indianapolis — Crawfordsville 


45 


43 


49 


Indianapolis, Columbus & Southern 
Indianapolis & Louisville. 


Indianapolis — Louisville 


117 


ill 


68 
65 


Indianapolis, New Castle & Toledo 


Indianapolis — New Castle 


45 


90 


100 


Chicago, South Bend & Northern 


Michigan City — South Bend .... 


40 1 
30 / 
65 

78 
42 


70 

60 

78 
85 


117* 


Winona Interurban 


Goshen — Peru 


70* 


Chicago, Lake Shore & South Bend. . . 




90 


Aurora Elgin & Chicago 


Chicago — Aurora — Elgin 


160* 


Illinois Traction 


172 1 
123 1 


425 








560* 


East St. Louis & Suburban 




25 
52 


100 
60 


181* 


Rock Island Southern 


Rock Island — Monmouth 


82* 


Chicago & Milwaukee Electric 


Evanston — Milwaukee 


76 


80 


186* 


Milwaukee Electric Ry. & Lt 


Milwaukee — Watertown 


51 1 
36 








Milwaukee — Burlington 


35 ' 
33 


100 


356* 




Milwaukee — Kenosha 






Milwaukee Northern 


Milwaukee — Sheboygan 


58 


54 


64* 


Milwaukee Western 


Milwaukee — ^Fox Lake 


60 


60 





Iowa & Illinois 


Clinton — Davenport, Iowa 


40 


36 


40 


Inter-Urban Ry 


Des Moines — Colfax 


24 1 


64 


72 




Des Moines — Perry 


35/ 


Fort Dodge, Des Moines & Southern. . 


Fort Dodge — Des-Moines 


70 


126 


141* 


Waterloo, Cedar Falls & Northern 


Waterloo — Cedar Falls — Waverly 


24 


55 


100* 


Northern Texas Traction 


Sherman — Dallas 


63 


76 


86* 


Colorado & Southern Ry 


Denver — Boulder 


29 


32 


54 




Colorado Springs — Cripple Creek. 


19 


20 


20 



* These roads operate passenger cars in trains, and handle freight under the Master Car Builders' 
rules of interchange. 



18 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 
INTERURBAN RAILWAYS.— Continued. 





Name of terminal cities. 


Distance 

between 

cities. 


Track mileage. 


Name of electric railway. 


Inter- 
urban. 


Grand 
total. 


Salt Lake & 0"-den R R 


Salt Lake — Ogden 


35 
20 
37 
64 
40 
70 
80 
97 
50 
6 


38 

80 
64 
70 
75 
80 
102 
50 
30 


55* 




Spokane — Medicine Lake — Cheny 
Seattle — Tacoma 


108* 




200* 




New Westminster — Chilliwack . . . 
Portland — Cazadero 


150* 


Portland Ry Light & Power 


472* 




Portland — Salem — Eugene 

Portland — Tillamook 


80* 


United Rys. Company 

Northern Electric ... ... 


100 


Sacramento — Orville 


130* 


Central California 


51* 


San Francisco, Oakland & San Jose . . . 
Southern Pacific Company 


San Francisco — San Jose 

Oakland — Berkley 


64* 
200* 








Visalia Electric Ry 


Visalia — Lemon Cove .... 








Los Angeles Pacific Company 

Los Angeles Ry. Corporation 


Los Angeles — Santa Monica, etc 






260* 


Los Angeles — Coast Cities 


40 


386 


600* 



* These roads operate passenger cars in trains, and handle freight under the Master Car Builders' 
rules of interchange. 

THE NEW YORK— WISCONSIN ELECTRIC RAILWAY TRIP. 



Stations. 


Miles. 


Via. 


Hudson to Albany, N. Y 

Albany to Schenectady 


38 
16 
29 
28 
23 
49 
86 
56 
25 
88 
33 

73 

129 
137 
55 
44 
56 
76 
14 
6 
74 
61 
51 


Albany Southern R. R. 

Schenectady Railway. 

Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville R. R. 

Little Falls and Johnstown R. R. 

Utica and Mohawk Valley. 

West Shore R. R., Oneida Div. 


Schenectady to Johnstown 

Johnstown to Little Falls 

Little Falls to Utica 


Utica to Syracuse 


Syracuse to Rochester 


Rochester, Syracuse & Eastern. 
Buffalo, Lockport & Rochester. 
International Railway. 
Buffalo & Lake Erie Traction 


Rochester to Lockport 

Lockport to Buffalo, N. Y 

Buffalo to Erie, Pa . . 


Erie to Conneaut, Ohio 

Conneaut to Ashtabula \ 
Ashtabula to Cleveland / 
Cleveland to Toledo 


Conneaut & Erie Traction. 
Pennsylvania & Ohio Railway. 
Cleveland, Ashtabula & Eastern. 
Lake Shore Electric Railway. 
Ohio Electric Railway. 
Ft. Wayne & Wabash Valley. 


Toledo to Ft. Wayne, via Lima . . 
Ft. Wayne to Peru 


Peru to Warsaw 


Warsaw to South Bend . . 


Chicago, South Bend & North Indiana. 
Chicago, Lake Shore & South Bend. 
Chicago City Railway. 
Northwestern Elevated R R 


South Bend to Pullman 


Pullman to Chicago 

Chicago to Evanston 


Evanston to Milwaukee 


Chicago & Milwaukee Electric R. R. 
Milwaukee Northern Ry. 
Milwaukee Electric Ry. 


Milwaukee to Sheboygan, or. . . . 
Milwaukee to Watertown 



See route maps in E. R. J., Sept. 24, 1910; Jan. 7, 1911 



HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 



19 



When Traveling in the Central West Use the Electric Lines 

LOW RATES— FREQUENT SERVICE — FAST- LIMITED TRAINS — NO SMOKE— NO DUST 




ACROSS CENTRAL OHIO 

on the Liniited Trains of the 
OHIO ELECTRIC RAILWAY 



Shortest Route Between 

Zanesvllle, Newark, Columbns,5prinK- 

neld, Dayton, Richmond and 

Indianapolis. 



2S0 MILES IN 9 HOURS TIME 



Alao Frequent Service Between 

SprinKfleld-Urbaoa— Bellelontalne. 

Lima— Ft. Wayne. Lima— Defiance. 

Lima— Toledo— Cincinnati— Dayton. 

Dayton— Union City. 



LIMA 

ROUTE 



NORTH and SOUTH 

Through Western Ohio 

Fourteen Limited Trains Dally 
Between 

TOLEDO -Bowling Oreen—Flndlay 
--Lima— Cellna-Wapakoneta~Sldney 
— PIqua— Troy— SprlnKfleld— TIppeca- 
.noe City and DAYTON 



T^' !?.■ A*i'. Ry. 163 MILES WITHOUT CHANGE OF CARS 

D. « T. El. Ry. 



The Southwestern Lines 

Connect 

CLEVELAND 



Elyria Beare 

Norwalk Lorain 
Ashland Mansfield 



With 

Oberlin Wellington 

Medina Wooster 

Crestline Galion Bucyrus 
Frequent Service Fast Limited Trains 

THE CLEVELAND, SOUTHWESTERN & COLUMBUS 
RAILWAY COMPANY 



376 MILES IN INDIANA and ILLINOIS 
VU 

Terre Bante, Indianapolis & Eastero Traction Company 

Lebanon, Crawfordsvllle, Frankfort, 
Lafayette, Danville (Ind.), Greencastle, 
Brazil, Terre Haute, Sullivan, 
Paris, III.; Martinsville, Greenfield, 
Knightstown, Richmond and Dayton,0. 

FAST LIMITED TRAIN SERVICE 

To 

TERRE HAUTE, LAFAYETTE. NEW CASTLE. 

RICHMOND. DAYTON. C. and PARIS. ILL. 

Local Prelebt and Express Service Between All Points 



INDIANAPOLIS 

aod 




THROUGH THE HEART OF ILLINOIS 

LLINOIS TRACTION 
SYSTEM 



CORN BELT LIMITEDS 

ST. LOUIS to 

Limitedx and 

SLEEPING CARS 

St. Louis to 



MILES 

SPRINGFIELD 

DECATUR 

CHAMPAIGN 

DANVILLE 

223 Miles In t,Vz Hours 

I SPRINGFIELD 
PEORIA 
BLOOMINQTON 



CleveIand"ToledO"Detroit 

LORAm—SANDUSKT— NORWALK— FRBHONT 

Lake Shore Electric Railway 

SEVEN LIMITED TRAINS 
180 Mllet In S Hoiirs 
cr Through Tickets a^d t<ow Rates to aU Points In 



The Northern Ohio Traction & Light Co. 

6 Limited Trains Daily CLEVELAND— AKRON 

3 Limited Trains Dally CLEVELAND- CANTON 

Rerular Ixxsal TtBlna XireiT Half-hoar 



Connections at AKRON 



for j 



Connections at CANTON for 



CUYAHOGA FALLS, 
KENT, RAVENNA, 
BARBERTON, WADSWORTH. 
MASSILLON, 
CANAL DOVER, 
NEW PHILADELPHIA, 
.UHRICHSVILLE. 



Ft. Wayne & Wabash Valley Tract'n Co. 

116 MILEtt — ALONQ— 4 HOURS 

"The Banks of the Wabash" 

In Our Parlor Buffet Cars 

Connecting; 

FT. WAYNE, HUNTINGTON; PERU, WABASH, 

LOGANSPORT and LAFAYETTE. 



"FT. WAYNE-INDIANAPOLIS LIMITEDS" 
13« Mlles-4'/a Hours 






INDIANA UNION 
TRACTION COMPANY 



SUPERB TRAIN SERVICE 

Between 

Indianapolis, Anderson, Marlon, Wabash, Muncle, Union City, 
Bluffton, Ft. Wayne, Kokomo, Peru and Logansport. 

''INDIANAPOLIS-FT. WAYNE SPECIALS") .,„.,„ „^ ^^^^ 
' INDIANAPOLIS-MARION FLYERS" \ NONF SO (1001) 

"INDIANAPPLIS-MUNICE METEOR- i '^"'^»- *'" UUUU 

—FAST FREIGHT and EXPRESS SERVICE)— 



Northern Illinois to Southern Wisconsin 

By the great 
THIRD RAIL ROUTE 

AURORA. ELQIN & CHICAGO R. R. 

From the heart of Chicago to 

WHEATON— AURORA— ELGIN— BELVIDERE 

ROCKFORD— FREEPORT— BELOIT-^ANESVILLP. 

125 Miles. 4</x Hours. 

CHAIR CAR S B UFFET SERVICE 




Fig. 7. — Advertisement U.sed by Interurban Railways. 



20 'ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

COMPETITION WITH STEAM ROADS. 

Competition between steam and electric roads became active in 1890. 
Interurban and suburban electric railways took most of the local passen- 
ger business, which formerly was a great part of the steam railroad 
passenger traffic; and the total number of passengers carried by many 
steam railroads radically decreased between 1895 and 1900. 

The paralleling of steam roads by electric roads resulted always in a 
financial loss to the steam road. Even where the facilities for handling 
traffic were equal, the public discriminated in favor of electric traction. 
The freight traffic of electric railways grew; and, as the capacities of the 
power houses and lines were increased, the handling of carload freight 
originating along the line was found to be profitable. This naturally 
created bad feeling on the part of the steam railroads, because of the loss 
of a monopoly of the mileage and passenger business. 

Action by the steam railroads then followed: 
' They leased both their profitable and unprofitable branch lines to 
electric roads, rather than have these branches paralleled. 

They leased their tracks or right-of-way for local electric passenger 
service but, in most cases, reserved the use of the tracks for thru passenger 
and freight trains, hauled by steam locomotives. This action gave them 
greater returns on the capital invested, and it prevented the building 
of a parallel line, and a division of earnings. The joint use of tracks was 
thus an economical procedure. Examples of this are noted: 

Canadian Pacific R. R. lease of Hull-Aylmer division, near Ottawa, Ontario, 
for 35 years. 

Erie Railroad lease of Buffalo & Lockport Division for 999 years. 

Chicago Great Western Railway lease of Sumner-Denver Jet. branch to Waterloo, 
Cedar Falls & Northern Railway. 

Minneapolis and St. Louis R. R., also Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul R. R., 
leases of branch lines to Twin City Rapid Transit Co. 

Northern Pacific R. R. lease of Everett branch to Everett Railway and Elec. Co. 

Southern Pacific Co. leases of branch lines to Pacific Electric Railway, Peninsula 
Railway, etc. 

Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific R. R. leases of Monmouth-Galesburg 20-niile 
road, for 25 years to Rock Island Southern Railway. 

They electrified their branch lines, to head off trolley competition. 
An investment of $6,000 to $8,000 per mile, for trolley and electric power 
equipment, was made by the existing steam road; while not only this 
investment, but an additional $12,000 to $15,000 would have been 
required for the road and equipment of a new electric railway. Projected 
roads, which would be competing or paralleling, were often headed off in 
this manner by steam railroads. 



HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 21 

They familiarized themselves with the use of gasoline power and 
electric power, and studied their economic advantages for branch lines. 

They reduced the passenger fares between competing points. 

They purchased competing lines, branch lines, and feeders, and con- 
solidated them, to control the financial or railway situation. Some steam 
railroads (Boston & Maine, New Haven, New York Central, Delaware 
& Hudson, Colorado & Southern, Great Northern, Northern Pacific, and 
Southern Pacific), to protect themselves, have purchased several thou- 
sand miles of interurban railways, thus destroying some competition. 

New York, New Haven & Hartford R. R. had acquired, to 1909, about 
1500 miles of trolley line in New England. The reason for this enormous 
trolley acquisition was given in 1909 by President C. S. Mellin, as follows: 

"The thought of our company when it first acquired an interest in Massachusetts 
trolleys was not the suppression of competition, for we do not believe there is any 
serious competition between the two systems of traction, electric and steam. Rather, 
it is our thought that all systems will ultimately develop into the electric, and the 
street railways, so called, become adjuncts to, or supplementary to, the present 
trunk lines, which are now operated by steam, but which we believe are later going 
to be transformed into electric lines." 

New York Central has purchased about 750 miles of interurban 
road in the Mohawk Valley. This proved advantageous to the public. 
The service was bettered by expenditures for double track, terminals, 
improved electric motive power, more private right-of-way, higher speed, 
and better management. Close co-operation, the making of one business 
the auxiliary to the other business, has resulted in better public service. 
Later on, much wdll be gained by joint construction and maintenance of 
power plants. A desire exists to operate two- and three-car trains, and a 
study is now being made of the local limitations that prevent better electric 
service, viz., short-sighted city ordinances, short-radius curves, long 
fenders, weak bridges, etc. 

Delaware & Hudson has followed the examples set by other railroads. 

The advantages accruing thru the acquisition of the United Traction Company 
of Albany, the Hudson Valley Railway (owned by the United Traction Company), 
the Troy & New England Railway, the Plattsburg Traction Company, and a half 
interest in the Schenectady Railway (the other interest in which is owned by the 
Mohawk Valley Company on behalf of the New York Central & Hudson River), can 
best be understood by showing the relations between these electric roads and the 
steam railroads controlled by the Delaware & Hudson. 

The electric lines furnish a complement to the service provided by the steam 
railroads; and the full benefit of this is derived when the running schedules of the 
electric roads are made to conform to those of the steam roads so as to afford the best 
service possible for the patrons of the respective companies. 

The construction of trolley lines, even where parallehng the steam railroads, 



22 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

may materially increase the traffic on the latter. The steam roads cannot afford to 
make the frequent stops which are made by the electric lines, and the traffic is mainly 
new business created by the increased transportation facilities afforded. 

Competition between electric and steam roads was the indirect cause 
of the adoption of electric power by many short steam roads, and of 
parallel suburban steam roads; and it was the direct cause of the elec- 
trification of the following steam roads: 

Mersey Railway near Liverpool, 1903. 
Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway, 1904. 
Manhattan Elevated Railway, New York, 1903. 
Some of the elevated roads in Chicago, 1896. 

Reference : 

The result of these electrifications was rapid recovery of gross earn- 
ings, a decrease in operating expenses, and the improvement of a bad 
financial situation. 

Lancashire & Yorkshire Railway regained a very large traffic, which was pre- 
viously taken away by competing electric lines, after it was electrified in 1904, accord- 
ing to the testimony of J. A. F. Aspinwall, General Manager and Engineer, in an 
address to the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 1909. 

Manhattan Elevated Railroad, operated with the best compound steam locomo- 
tives, might have failed, so severe was the competition of the electric railways which 
paralleled it. After the road was electrified in 1903, the traffic was recovered. 

Competition with steam railroads still exists, to a limited extent. 
Much of the heavier passenger and light freight business of the steam 
railroads has been taken, and will be held by the long electric railways, 
until the steam railroads in turn adopt electric traction. Competition 
in the future will therefore be interesting. 

Patronage Will Depend on the Following Determining Features : 

— Routes on a private right-of-way, including city terminals, because 
schedule speed, not distance, will be paramount. Interurban roads 
which use the city streets will be excluded from this race. 

Accessibility to the starting point and destination of passengers. 
Probably, in the future, few elevated structures will be allowed on city 
streets. Many railways will therefore be required to use subways and 
tunnels under city streets. These tunnels will facilitate the gathering 
and rapid distribution of freight at terminals. 

Frequency, convenience, and comfort in passenger-train service. 
Facilities for handling traffic with flexible motive power at terminals. 

Ownership of the competing, and of the feeding lines. 

Economy in train operation. 

Freight tariffs will seldom govern in the competition. 



HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 23 



PRIVATE RIGHT-OF-WAY. 

One important development in the history of electric railways was 
due to the use of a private right-of-way. This became necessary for safe 
operation at high speeds, and for thru traffic on the interstate roads 
which, since 1900, have developed so rapidly. Important electric rail- 
ways on a private right-of-way are not to be classified with interurbans 
which run along the public highways. The use of a private right-of-way 
contributed greatly to the development of the following early railways: 

Akron, Bedford & Cleveland Railroad, 1895. 
Buffalo & Lockport Railway, which leased its 21 -mile road, 1898. 
Albany Southern Railroad, a third-rail road, 1901. 
Seattle-Tacoma Interurban Railway, a third-rail road, 1902. 
Wilkes- Barre & Hazelton Railway, a third-rail road, 1903. 
Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley Railroad, a third-rail road, 1903. 
Scioto Valley Traction Company, a third-rail road, 1904. 
Aurora, Elgin & Chicago Railroad, a third-rail road, 1903. 

The development is outlined in St. Ry. Jour., Jan. 2, 1904, p. 26. 

The first electric railways on a private right-of-way and e\ en branch 
lines of electrified steam railroads used city streets as terminals so that 
passengers could be received and delivered nearer the heart of the cities. 
Important electric railways, which operate two- or three-car trains, now 
prefer a private right-of-way to their own passenger terminals, and a 
loop around the cities for the thru freight traffic. 

Lack of a private right-of-way, and the use of turn-pikes, highways, 
and state roads, retard the development of many interurban railways, 
particularly those in New England and some of those radiating from 
Albany, Detroit, Indianapolis, Columbus, etc. In these cases the short 
radius street curves limit the length of cars, the grades require excessive 
power, the roadbed is crooked and badly drained, the running of trains is 
prevented, the schedule speed is slow, and the necessary results of these 
restrictions are limited traffic and poor car service. 

Electric roads, in many states, operate under the general state rail- 
road laws, and are authorized to take and appropriate private property 
for a right-of-way thru, under, and across any land needed for the con- 
struction, maintenance, and operation of the road, and may do so by 
instituting condemnation proceedings. Consult: U. S. Census Report on 
Street and Electric Railways, 1902, p. 136. 

Advantages of a Private Right-of-way are Found to be : 

High speed, which is practical from terminal to terminal. This secures business 
in competition. In heavy electric traction, running time is often as important as 
frequent service. The suburbs of large cities are determined and measured on a 



24 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

time basis instead of by distances. Steam railroads which have electrified their 
suburban lines have an opportunity to get, or regain, the bulk of the passenger trafiic, 
particularly where the electric zone extends more than 15 miles from the city. High 
speed on city streets and country highway is dangerous. 

Dead mileage on city loops and streets is eliminated. 

Cars used on a private right-of-way have the standard width of 10 feet, thus 
allowing comfortable cross seats. 

Trains of two or more passenger cars can be operated. There is a reasonable 
objection to two- and three-car trains on city streets, and they are seldom allowed. 

Third rails and high- voltage trolleys can be utilized to decrease the cost of trans- 
missions and the loss of power. 

Track construction may be better, or may cost less, because of the route, the 
drainage, the higher elevation, and the absence of paving. Tee-rails supersede girder 
rails, and the special work required is cheaper. 

Maintenance is decreased. Cost of tie renewals, bridge up-keep, and track repairs 
is lower. Removal of snow is facilitated. Maintenance of equipment per seat-mile 
and per ton-mile is less with longer cars, heavier switch work, and long-radius curves. 

Subways and tunnel roads at the terminals may deliver freight and passengers 
to convenient points in the city. 

Franchises are not required from counties and from some municipalities, altho 
reasonable speed and police restrictions may be enforced. Delays, uncertainty, 
expense, limitations, and unreasonable restrictions may be avoided. 

Freight and express traffic may be facilitated. There is a reasonable objection 
to freight cars on city streets, day or night. 

Trainmen's wages, the heaviest expense per car mile, per car-hour, or per ton- 
mile are reduced by the increased schedule speed, and by the use of two- and three-car 
trains. Accident and legal expenses are also reduced. 

Cost of power is decreased. A two- or three-car train requires from 70 to 60 per 
cent, of the power of a single car train, per ton moved. The power required is decreased 
also because the grades and sharp curves of the city streets are avoided and because 
the cleaner Tee-rail reduces the frictional resistance. The load factor of the power 
plant is improved when freight train service is added. 

Economic results from these advantages are the ability to secure and 
retain business, on the time-honored principle that "facilities create 
traffic," and the reduced cost of handling a given volume of business, by 
utilizing the physical advantages incident to the private right-of-way. 

Disadvantages to be noted are that passengers may not be delivered 
at convenient terminals; public bridges may not be utilized; the cost of 
the road on the private right-of-way may be higher; and transfers to 
other lines or roads may not be practicable. 

The importance of the matter is shown by the U. S. Census reports on 
electric railways. In 1902 there were 3802 miles on a private right-of- 
way, or 16.8 per cent, of the total electric mileage, while in 1907 this had 
increased to 10,972 miles, or to 31.9 per cent, of the total electric mileage. 
The importance of the train service determines the percentage of the 
mileage on a private right-of-way. 

Many steam railroads have now been changed to electric, and their 



HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 25 

track is on a private right-of-way, including good private terminals in 
the heart of the cities. 



ELEVATED RAILWAYS. 

Elevated railways have adopted electric motive power for their train 
service, to utilize the physical advantages of electric traction. The 
capacity of the elevated roads was thereby increased, because longer 
electric-car trains could be operated, and at higher speeds. The shearing 
and deflecting strains on the structure and the vibration due to reciprocal 
strokes of the engine were lessened. The dirt, ashes, and gas, and the 
noise from the exhaust steam of a locomotive, were eliminated. 

Many elevated railroads experimented with electricity prior to 1890, 
but most of these tried electric locomotives. Rapid progress was made 
after the multiple-unit car control system was developed in 1898. Third- 
rail conductors, motor-car trains, and the 600-volt, direct-current system, 
are now used by all elevated railways. 

At the Columbian Exposition, Intramural R. R., at Chicago, in 1893, 
fifteen 4-car trains were successfully operated, on a 6-mile elevated road, 
using the electric locomotive-car scheme. 

Liverpool Overhead Railway was the first elevated railway in Eng- 
land to use electric power. This was in 1893. 

Metropolitan West Side Elevated R. R., Chicago, equipped its road in 
1895, using the electric locomotive-car plan and, later, the motor-car plan. 

The Brooklyn Bridge and its terminals followed in 1896. 

Chicago and Oak Park Elevated R. R., formerly the Lake Street 
Elevated R. R., began operation on the electric-locomotive plan in 1896, 
but soon changed to the motor-car plan. 

South Side Elevated R. R., Chicago, was originally equipped with 
steam locomotives. It was one of the first railroads operating trains of 
cars to adopt electric propulsion. About 150 tons of anthracite coal, 
costing about $4 . 50 per ton, were burned daily by the steam locomo- 
tives. When electricity was adopted, in 1898, the amount of coal burned 
in the power house was less in tonnage than the coal burned in the loco- 
motives, and cost less than $1.50 per ton. This one saving helped to get 
the railroad out of the hands of a receiver. 

Manhattan Elevated Railroad, New York City, a large steam railroad, 
did not adopt electric traction until 1902. 

Data on length and equipment of elevated roads follow. 



26 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

TRAIN SERVICE ON ELEVATED AND UNDERGROUND ROADS. 



Name of electric railroad. 




Trains per 
hour. 



Boston Elevated 

Manhattan Elevated 

New York Subway 

Hudson and Manhattan 

Brooklyn Union Elevated 

Philadelphia Rapid Transit 

Chicago Union Elevated loop 

Metropolitan District, London 

Baker Street and Waterloo, London. . . . 
Charing Cross, Euston & Hempstead. . . 
Great Northern, Piccadilly & Brompton 



35 
60 
32 
40 
60 
20 
150 
68 
72 
80 
60 



THIRD-RAIL LINES. 

Third-rail lines represent an interesting development. Overhead 
trolley wires at first were often too frail or too expensive for direct- 
current, 600-volt, railway train service, and this led to the adoption of a 
rugged third-rail conductor of steel with large capacity and ample con- 
tact area. The chronology is briefly outlined. 

In 1879, Siemens and Halske operated a short 180-volt, third-rail 
line at the Berlin Exposition; in 1883, a 6-mile, 250-volt, third-rail line 
for the Port rush Railway in Ireland. 

In 1880, Edison used a third rail for his Menlo Park locomotives. 
Elec. World, June 10, 1899; Sprague, A.I.E.E., May, 1899, p. 245. 

In 1883, Daft built the 12-mile Saratoga & Mount McGregor, and, 
in 1885, a 2-mile, 130-volt road at Baltimore. 

In 1893, Intramural Railway, of the World's Columbian Exposition, 
at Chicago, developed by H. M. Brinckerhoff, was the first commercial 
third-rail road of the present type. This 6-mile elevated road used 
direct current at 500 volts. 

In 1895, Metropolitan West Side Elevated Railway, of Chicago, was 
the first permanent electric third-rail line. The insulation first used was 
paraffined wood. Other elevated roads followed. 

In 1895, Baltimore and Ohio R. R. adopted a trough-shaped overhead 
contact line, flexibly suspended from the roof of the Baltimore tunnel. 
The contact shoe pressed downward on flanges of Z-bars. Mechanical 
troubles at curves, bad alignment, rigidity, and arcing, due to rapid cor- 
rosion from coal gas and steam from locomotives, caused the company to 
abandon the plan. It then placed an expensive sectionalized third rail 



HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 27 

near the track, which in turn was abandoned for a simplified type of third 
rail on reconstructed granite blocks. Later the clamps for the rails 
were corroded. At present the rail rests on porcelain without clamp 
fastenings. 

In 1896, New York, New Haven & Hartford R. R. applied the 
third rail on its Nantasket Beach line, near Boston. The insulated 
third rail was placed near the center of the track. This was followed by 
40 miles of road in Connecticut, equipped with the third rail at the side 
of the track. (St. Ry. Journ., June, 1897; Sept., 1898; Aug. 25 and Sept. 
8, 1900.) The third rail w^as badly placed and unprotected. Some 
fatalities and injuries followed and, by a decree of the Superior Court, 
June 13, 1906, the Company was compelled to abandon all third rail 
operation in Connecticut, and revert to steam locomotives. 

In 1901, Albany & Hudson R. R. installed the finest third-rail road 
in the country, on a private right-of-way between Albany and Hudson. 

In 1903, Wilkes-Barre and Hazelton R. R. installed a third-rail line 
for heavy traction. The line is 26 miles long, on a private right-of-way. 
The rail was protected by pine guards. St. Ry. Journ., March 7, 1903. 

In 1907, West Jersey & Seashore R. R. built an extensive protected 
third-rail contact line, 65 miles long, on its double track road between 
Camden and Atlantic City, N. J. The application was of a substantial 
character, for passenger train service comparable with ordinary steam 
railroad traffic. 

In 1907, New York Central R. R. began the use, at New York, of an 
under-running third-rail contact. Heretofore all large installations had 
used the over-running contact. The scheme was patented by Sprague 
and Wilgus, under whose direction the installation was made. St. Ry. 
Journ., Nov. 9, 1907, p. 954. 

In 1908, Hudson & Manhattan R. R., and Interboro Rapid Transit, 
adopted for a third rail an inverted channel in 60-foot lengths, weighing 
75 pounds per yard. 

In 1909, Pennsylvania Railroad, for its six tunnels and thirty-six 
parallel tracks at its New York terminal, and for part of the Long Island 
Railroad, used a 150-pound Tee-rail. 

See third rail, under ''Transmission and Contact Lines." 

Statistical tables which follow show the extent, present status, and 
importance of railways using the third-rail conductor. 



28 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

THIRD-RAIL LINES IN AMERICA. 





Year 


No. of 


Present 


Location 


Gage 

Hne to 

third-rail 

center. 


Name of railway. 


service 
started. 


motor 
cars. 


third-rail 
mileage. 


above 
track-rail. 


Boston Elevated 


1901 


225 


26 


6.00'' 


20.375" 


New York, New Haven & Hart. : 




Nantasket Beach Division 


1896 








1.50 


Center 


New Berlin, Connecticut 


1897 








1.50 


Center 


New York Division, leased. . . . 


1908 


/ 4 1 

\ 43L/ 


50 


2.75 


28.25 


Brooklyn Rapid Transit, Elev. . . 


1895 


659 


107 


r6.75 
16.00 


20.50 
22.25 


Manhattan Elevated R. R 


1902 


895 


119 


/7.50 
14.50 


20.75 
22.00 


Interborough Rapid T., Subway. 


1904 


910 


85 


4.00 


26.00 


Hudson & Manhattan R. R 


1908 


200 


18 


4.00 


26.00 


New York Central: 












Hudson and Harlem Divisions. 


1906 


/137 1 

I 47L/ 


50 


/2.75 
13.50 


28.25 
27.50 


West Shore R. R.: 












Utica-Syracuse Division 


1906 


21 


114 


2.75 


32.00 


Pennsylvania R. R. : 












Long Island R. R 


1903 


322 


150 


3.50 


27.50 


West Jersey & Seashore 


1907 


80 


144 


3.50 


27.50 


New York Terminal Division. . 


1910 


33 L 


95 


3.50 


27.50 


Albany Southern R. R 


1900 


45 


58 


6.00 


27.00 


New York, Auburn & Lansing .... 


1911 • 




40 






Philadelphia Rapid Transit 


1904 


150 


18 


6.00 


23.00 


Philadelphia & Western 


1907 


28 


40 


6.00 


26.625 


Wilkes-Barre & Hazelton 


1903 


6 


32 


5.00 


28.00 


Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley. 


1903 


30 


50 


3.00 


20.375 


Baltimore & Ohio R. R 


1895 
1910 


12 L 
6L 


9 
19 


3.30 
2.75 


30 . 35 


Michigan Central R. R., Detroit. 


28.25 


Scioto Valley Traction 


1904 


17 


79 


6.00 


28.00 


Michigan United Railway 


1904 


40 


100 


6.00 


21.205 


Grand Rapids, Grand Haven & M. 


1902 


30 


49 


5.75 


20.375 


Intramural R. R., Chicago 


1893 


15 





13.00 


30.000 


Chicago & Oak Park Elevated .... 


1896 


45 


20 


6.50 


20.125 


Metropolitan West Side Elevated. 


1895 


225 


57 


6.25 


20.125 


Aurora, Elgin & Chicago R. R. . . 


1902 


115 


126 


6.31 


20.125 


Northwestern Elevated R. R. . . . 


1900 


288 


60 


6.50 


20.125 


South Side Elevated R. R., Chi. . . 


1898 


200 


47 


6.75 


20.125 


Twin City Rapid Transit 


1907 


2L 


1 


6.00 


30.00 


Puget Sound Electric 


1902 


100 


60 


7.50 


20.00 







HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 
THIRD-RAIL LINES IN AMERICA— Continued. 



29 





Year 


No. of 


Third- 


Location 


Gage 

Hne to 

third-rail 

center. 


Name of railway. 


service 
started. 


motor 
cars. 


rail 
mileage. 


above 
track-rail. 


Northwestern Pacific R. R., Cal. 


1908 


37 


23 


6.00 


27.00 


Central California Traction; 












uses 1200 volts, on third rail. 


1909 


10 


50 


3.00 


29.50 


Northern Electric Ry., California. 


1906 


42 


130 


5.56 


25.50 


M. C. B. recommendation. 


1904 


Over 


contact 


3.50 


27.00 






Under 


contact 


2.75 


27.00 



The last line is the longest. It handles heavy freight and passenger traffic. 
THIRD-RAIL LINES IN EUROPE. 



Name of railway. 



Year 
service 
started. 



No. of 

motor 

cars. 



Third- 
rail 
mileage. 



Location 

above 
track-rail. 



Gage 

line to 

j third-rail 

center. 



Central London 

London Electric Ry. : 

Metropolitan District , 

Baker Street & Waterloo. . 

Charing Cross, E. & H 

Great Northern, P. & B . . . 

Great Northern & City 

Great Western, M. & W. L. . . 

Metropolitan Ry., London . . . 

City & South London 

Waterloo & City 

Mersey Railway 

Lancashire & Yorkshire 
Liverpool-Southport 

Liverpool Overhead 

North-Eastern Railway 

BerUn Overhead and 
Underground. 

Serlin-Gross Lichterfelde . . . . 

Fribourg-Morat, Switzerland. 

Paris-Metropolitan 

Paris-Lyons- Mediterranean . . 



Paris-Orleans 



Paris- Versailles (Western) .... 
Paris North-South Electric. . . 
Fayet-Chamonix-Martigny . . . 
Mediterranean Ry. 

Milan- Varese-Porto Ceresio. 



1900 



13 

168 



1904 
1906 
1907 
1906 
1904 
1906 
1905 
1890 
1898 
1903 

1904 
1893 
1904 
1897 
1907 
1903 
1902 
1900 
1900 

1900 

1901 
1910 
1902 

1901 



197 
36 
60 
72 
35 
40 

130 
52 
20 
24 

80 
44 
62 

139 

24 



548 



/lOO 
\ 11 L 
10 L 



80 
20 



7 
11 
60 
15 

3 
10 

82 
13 
82 
16 
10 
15 
18 
63 
40 

46 

16 

4 

34 

81 



1.50 
3.00 



3.00 
3.00 
1.25 
level 
6.00 

3.00 
1.50 
3.25 
7.10 
19.05 
12.625 
5.375 
5.75 
9.00 
/ 7.875 
16.00 
7.875 



9.055 
7.60 



Center 
16.00'' 



11.25 

16.00 

16.00 

14.50 

Center 

22.25 

19.25 

Center 

19.25 

13.25 

16.00 

33.50 

26.00 

12.75 

23.00 

23 . 625 

22.00 

25.625 



23 . 00 
26.50 



30 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



SUBWAYS AND TUNNELS. 

Subways and underground roads have also found electricity advan- 
tageous, primarily because of the absence of smoke, gas, and condensed 
steam. In underground roads and subways, motor-car trains are used for 
passenger service; while m tunnels locomotives are generally employed for 
freight and passenger train haulage. 

Underground railways in England, called tube railways, have a total 
length of 100 miles, all double track. The tubes are deep, and require 
150 passenger elevators at fifty stations. 

Paris subways are important, and they have a greater traffic than the 
New York Interborough Subway. Elec. Ry. Journ., Dec. 11, 1909. 

New York Central R. R. terminal at New York, and the Boston 
terminal stations, have been arranged for the operation of motor-car 
trains in sub-tracks below the elevation of the main-line tracks. 

Subways and tunnels under city buildings and streets, to reach a 
convenient city terminal, for the purpose of delivering freight and 
passengers, are a recent development. (Hudson & Manhattan R. R.) 

Subways have been considered for freight service at New York City; 
also for local passenger service at Montreal, Toronto, Pittsburg, Cleveland, 
Cincinnati, Chicago, Minneapolis, St. Louis, and Los Angeles. 

Cost of subways at New York with equipment is $1,100,000 per mile 
of single track. Subways without motive power equipment cost from 
$600,000 to $900,000 per mile. Cost of tunnels under rivers without 
equipment varies from $1,200,000 to $1,800,000 per mile. Elevated 
structures, without equipment, cost $200,000 to $300,000 per single- 
track mile; conduit railway lines without equipment, from $80,000 to 
$120,000 per single-track mile. New York Rapid Transit Commission 
Report of 1908. 

Tunnel roads now use electric traction. Steam locomotive drivers 
slipped on the greasy rails in tunnels. Condensed steam and soot deposits 
were a nuisance. Gas and steam-laden atmosphere required long blocks, 
and was a menace to safe operation. Exhaust fans seldom successfully 
cleared the tunnel of gas and smoke. Oil firing was a poor expedient, and 
coke formed a suffocating gas. Formerly trains waited for hours until 
the tunnel was cleared of gas pockets, formed by variable winds; and if 
traffic was dense, congestion followed. The capacity of tunnels, in cars 
per day, was generally doubled by the introduction of electric hauling of 
the freight and passenger trains. 



HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 



31 



UNDERGROUND ROADS USING ELECTRIC POWER. 






j 






Inside section. 




Name of railroad. 


Route 


Double 


Grade 






Elec. 










! miles. 


track. 


p.c. 


Height. 


Width. 


power. 


Roston Subwav 


4.4 


Yes 




20 5 


23 3 


1895 


New York Interboro Subway . . . 


25.0 


2 and 4 




11.5 


12.4 


1904 


Philadelphia Rapid Transit 


1.4 


Yes 




14.5 


13.3 


1905 


Illinois Tunnel, Chicago 


62.0 


2 and 4 




7.5 


6.0 


1900 


Central London 


: 6.5 


Yes 




11.7 


diam. 


1895 


London Electric 


100.0 


Yes 




11.7 


diam. 


1905 


City & South London 


3.4 


Yes 




10 5 


diam. 


1890 


Paris — Orleans 


2.4 


Yes 


1.1 






1900 


Papjs — Metropolitan 


31.0 


Yes 




15 


23 4 


1900 


Budapest, Hungary 


2.3 


Yes 




9.0 


20.0 


1896 


Berlin, City of 

Hamburg, City of 

Boston & Maine R. R. 


12.0 


Yes 








1902 


^ 4.0 


Yes 








1910 


4.75 


Yes 


0.3 


22.7 


24.0 


1911 


Hoosac Tunnel, Mass. 














Lackawanna and Wyoming Val- 


1.00 


No 


1.0 


22.0 


17.0 


1905 


ley, Scranton Tunnel 














Hudson & Manhattan R. R. ... 


2.50 


Yes 




15.25 


diam. 


1908 


Pennsylvania R. R. : 


15.0 






19.00 


diam. 


1910 


New York to Hoboken, N. J. . 




Yes 


1.30 








New York to Long Island .... 




4 


1.92 








Belmont Tunnel, East River 


' 


Yes 
Yes 








1911 


Interborough Rapid Transit 




15.0 


12.5 


1908 


New York to Brooklyn. 














Baltimore & Ohio R. R. 


1.2 


Yes 


1.5 






1895 


Baltimore Belt Line. 








Grand Trunk Railway 


1.2 


No 


2.0 


19.80 


diam. 


1908 


Port Huron-Sarnia Tunnel. 














Michigan Central R. R. 


1.5 


Yes 


2.0 


20.0 


diam. 


1910 


Detroit River Tunnel. 














Great Northern Railway 


2.6 


No 


1.7 


22.0 


16.0 


1909 


Cascade Tunnel, Wash. 














Spokane & Inland Empire 
Local tunnel at Spokane. 


0.8 


Yes 








1910 














Severn, England 


4.3 


No 




19.0 


28.0 


No 


Mersey, England 


4.0 


Yes 


2.0 


19.0 


26.0 


1903 


Bernese Alps Ry. 


8.5 i 


Yes 


2.7 


19.8 


26.4 


1911 


Loetschberg Tunnel. 














Swiss Federal Ry. 


12.3 


No 


0.7 


19.0 


16.5 


1908 


Simplon Tunnel. 


i 












St. Gothard, Switzerland 


9.3 1 


Yes 


0.5 


20.5 


26.0 


No 


Mont Cenis, Switzerland 


7.9 i 


Yes 


3.0 


20.5 


26.0 


1910 


Arlberg, Austria 

Italian State Ry. 
Giovi near Genoa. 


6.5 


Yes 


1 5 






No 


2.5 


Yes 


2.9 






1909 















Height noted is from the top of track tie to crown of arch. 



32 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

The handling of freight trains thru tunnels was accompanied by 
great danger. In the event of a train breaking in two, on the level or a 
grade in the tunnel, the time necessary to re-couple and release the auto- 
matically applied brakes, or to repair a defect, exceeded the time interval 
within which the steam locomotive could safely stay in the tunnel with- 
out suffocating the train crew. Electric trains can remain in the tunnel as 
long as required, and trainmen have such confidence in electrical opera- 
tion that the long tunnel has ceased to be a terror to them. 

Carrying capacity of tunnels was often doubled by electrification, 
because of the shorter blocks, absence of gases, and much greater loads on 
the grades. Time was saved and delays were avoided. 

All long tunnels with heavy traffic now use electric traction. 

References on Subways and Tunnels. 

Holden: "Setting of Tube Railways," London, 1907. 

Prelin: "Tunnelling," third edition, New York, 1909. 

Boston, History of Tunnel Development: S. R. J, Feb., 1903, p. 332. 

Hoosac Tunnel of Boston & Maine, Electrification: Shaad, E. R. J., Oct. 24, 1908. 

Rapid Transit Subways in Metropolitan Cities: Maltbie, Smithsonian Report No. 
1647 for 1904. 

New York Subway compared with Paris Subway: Whitten, E. R. J., Dec. 11, 1909. 

Hudson & Manhattan Railroad, S. R. J., March, 1903, p. 495, 1004; Jan. 11, 1908; 

Pennsylvania Tunnel & Terminal Railway, A. S. C. E., Alfred Noble, Sept., 1909. 
Clarke, Parker, Green, Aug., 1910; Brace & Mason, Dec, 1909. 

Baltimore & Ohio R. R., S. R. J., 1892, p. 416, 459. 

Philadelphia Subway, St. Ry. Review, July, 1905. 

Scranton, Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley R. R., Dennis, A. S. C. E., March, 1906. 

Davies: Railroad Tunnels, New York R.R. Club, Dec. 20, 1900. , - 

Chicago Freight Tunnels, E. W., Dec. 23, 1909. 

Woodworth: Subaqueous Tunnel Construction, Ry. Age Gazette, 1909; Pittsburg 
Railway Club, Dec, 1909. 

Great Northern Railway (Cascade), Hutchinson, A. I. E . E., Nov., 1909; S. R. J., Nov. 
20, 1909, p. 1052, Ry. Age Gazette, Nov., 1909. 

London Electric Railways, Fortenbaugh: S. R. J., March 4, 1905, Dec. 4, 1909. 

Fox: Tunnel Construction, International Railway Congress, June, 1900. 

Alpine Tunnels, Simplon, St. Gothard, Mont Cenis, Arlberg: Francis Fox, in Smith- 
sonian Report No. 1355 for 1901; Henning, to International Railway Congress, 
June, 1910; Ry. Age Gazette, Aug. 5, 1910. 

MOTOR-CAR TRAINS. 

Steam railroads in passenger and freight service use multi-car trains 
with a locomotive at the head of the train. Electric railways in heavy 
passenger service use motor-car trains with motors under each car, or 
under some of the cars of the train. There had been a rapid develop- 
ment in motor-car train service, caused in part by the competition be- 
tween electric roads. A passenger at once notices the great difference be- 
tween the good riding qualities, equipment, comfort, and service furnished 



HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 33 

in a 2- or 3-car electric train, and the riding qualities and service of an 
ordinary interurban car. 

Motor-car passenger trains are seldom allowed on the city streets. 
Exceptions are to be noted on some lines of the Connecticut Company, 
the Rhode Island Company, and at Hudson, Buffalo, Louisville, Mil- 
waukee, Des Moines, Seattle, and Tacoma. 

Motor-car trains are now used by all elevated and underground roads, 
and in important suburban and interurban passenger service; and also for 
important freight service in trains on North-Eastern Railway of England, 
Long Island R. R., West Jersey & Seashore, and some interurban roads. 

Control of the many motors used on a motor-car train was difficult. 
At first one controller was placed at each end of the train, and the main 
current was carried by heavy electric cables from motor car to motor car. 
Then control systems called ^'master controller" and ^'double header" 
were developed by Parshall, Darley, and others for motor-car trains; 
but the Sprague multiple-unit control scheme placed the development on 
an economical and on an operative basis. The scheme embraces second- 
ary control, and main currents do not enter the motorman's controller. 
It was first used, in 1898, by South Side Elevated R. R., of Chicago, for 
120 cars. Westinghouse and General Electric Companies followed with 
multiple-unit control equipments on the Brooklyn Elevated Railway, 
in 1898 and 1900. The first British railway to use the multiple-unit 
control was the City and South London, in 1904. 

Car equipment and multiple-unit control systems are detailed in the 
Chapter on '' Motor-Car Trains." 

MOUNTAIN-GRADE LINES. 

Mountain-grade lines have now been radically improved by the use of 
electric power on about 200 miles of road in Europe, particularly in and 
near Switzerland. In America, however, not a single trunk-line rail- 
road has equipped its mountain grades with electric power, altho the 
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy R. R. has so equipped a branch between 
Leads and Deadwood, S. D., 4 miles long on a heavy grade, and the 
Colorado Springs & Cripple Creek District Ry. of the Colorado & South- 
ern R. R., has installed electricity on an interurban line 18 miles long 
which has an average grade of 3 per cent. Great Northern Railway 
installation was for a tunnel and yards. 

In mountain-grade service, steam locomotives show low economy. 
The speed is but from 6 to 10 miles per hour; and on single track, conges- 
tion of traffic frequently cannot be avoided'. The remedy for much of the 
trouble was found in the use of electric power, which greatly increased 
the train hauling and track capacity, and improved the economy of 
operation. Long tunnels and snow sheds are common in the mountains. 
3 



34 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Water power is frequently abundant. The regeneration of electrical 
energy has been worked out, and is used in America and in Europe to 
promote safety on down-grade lines by preventing the heating of brakes- 
shoes and the straining of the brake rigging, and the use of air is restricted 
to cases of emergency. 

A list of heavy mountain grades, where water power and electric 
locomotives could be used advantageously, is given under Chapter XIV, 
in which there is a complete discussion of the subject. 

RAILROAD TERMINALS. 

Railroad terminals of some of the important railroads and scores of 
steam terminal railways within large cities have now been electrified. 
See lists of electric locomotives. Primarily this was for the purpose of 
obtaining better freight terminal facilities, better motive power, and 
economy in operation. Incidentally with electric power the smoke 
nuisance, the fire risk, the noise from exhaust steam, and the fogging of 
signals by steam are absent. The use of motor-car trains, for suburban 
passenger service from these terminals, is now an approved practice. 

RAILROADS USING ELECTRIC TRACTION AT TERMINALS. 

Paris-Orleans, at Paris, 1900. 

Lancashire & Yorkshire Railway, England, 1904. 

New South Wales Railway, Austraha, 1906. 

Havana Central Railroad, Cuba, 1906. 

Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, Baltimore tunnel yards, 1895. 

New York Central & Hudson River Railroad, New York, 1906. 

New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad, New York, 1908. 

Pennsylvania Railroad, New Jersey, New York, Long Island, 1910. 

Michigan Central Railroad, Detroit and Windsor, 1910. 

Congestion of traffic at terminals, where freight is transferred from 
one line to another, always presents a serious situation. Delays are 
caused by "protection" inspection at the point of interchange, and also 
by steam motive power which is unwieldy. The cost of the motive 
power at terminals is also high due to the nature of the operation of the 
boiler and engine in common switching locomotives. 

New York Dock Commission completed plans in 1910 for the estab- 
lishment of a $100,000,000 electric railway freight terminal near the 
North River in Manhattan; the New York Central in 1911 announced 
its determination to use electric traction for its freight terminals. 

Massachusetts Railroad Commission has recommended the electrifi- 
cation of all the railroads at the Boston terminal, stating: 

" The number of tracks in stations is limited. The cutting of the 3-minute head- 
way between steam trains to 2-minute, with electric service, would increase the termi- 
nal capacity of the Boston Station 50 per cent, by decreasing switching, increasing 
acceleration, and more rapid movements." 



HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 



35 



Buffalo terminals should be electrified by the several railroads, 
according to a comprehensive report made in 1908 by the Buffalo Com- 
mercial Club. The city council by ordinance has required all the rail- 
roads within the city to electrify their lines prior to 1913. 

Montreal, Toronto, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago, and St. Louis 
are now considering electric power for railroad terminals. 

Terminal electrification is always carried out with improvements in 
track elevation or depression, added terminal sidings, rearrangement and 
reconstruction, block signaling, etc., which items frequently represent a 
greater expenditure than the electrification of the terminal. 

Railroads have found that electricity can meet all physical and 
mechanical demands for terminals. Transportation problems, however, 
are far reaching, the amount of money involved is large and often hard 
to get, and established conceptions are persistently adhered to. Argu- 
ment for electric traction are now based on economic considerations to 
win adequate recognition. 

SWITCHING YARDS. 

Many steam railroads in freight districts of our cities have now 
been equipped with electric locomotives. However, many of the installa- 
tions noted in the last table, " Railroads using Electric Traction at Ter- 
minals," were in the vicinity of good resident districts. Further, good 
resident districts grew up around these railroad yards after electric 
traction abolished the exhaust steam noise and the smoke nuisance. 
Hundreds of such cases might be cited, and the agitation for more of this 
work is evident in every large city. Switching of short and long freight 
trains is now performed economically and effectively with electric loco- 
motives. Some of the American railways using electric switching 
locomotives for common switching yards are listed: 



Havana Central Railway, 1906. 
Slia\vinigan Falls Terminal Ry., 1908. 
Montreal Terminal Railway, 1908. 
Claremont (N. H.) Railway, 1908. 
Bush Terminal Ry., Brooklyn, 1904. 
Hoboken Shore Railway, N. J., 1898. 
Brooklyn Rapid Transit, 1907. 
Nashville Interurban Railway, 1909. 



Chicago & Milwaukee Electric Ry., 1898. 
Illinois Traction Company, 1900. 
Kansas City & Westport, 1902. 
Portland (Ore.) Railway, 1904. 
Gallatin Valley Ry., Montana, 1910. 
New York, New Haven & Hartford, 1911, 
Harlem River and New Rochelle Yards. 
Pennsylvania, Sunnyside Yards, 1910. 



FREIGHT SERVICE. 

Freight service on electric railways is a very recent development. 
Street railways, from the first, hauled small packages, and often larger 
commodities, in the vestibule, as an accommodiation, not for profit. 
Interurban railways carried mail and ordinary express almost from the 
beginning. The service was appreciated, and the traffic grew. Motor 



36 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

cars were then given over exclusively to the handling of perishable fruit 
and meats. Flat cars were often run as trailers, to carry lumber, stone, 
sand, and construction materials. Motor cars were soon used to carry 
coal, building, and track material. As the interurban roads grew in 
length, it was found convenient to use the forward quarter of each passen- 
ger car for an express compartment to carry merchandise, trunks, and 
baggage. In addition to this service, thousands of electric motor cars 
are now operated exclusively for handling express, freight, and farm 
commodities. Milk cars are used on the morning and evening runs. 
Steel baggage cars are now used at the head of many motor-car trains. 

Freight haulage on city streets has been objected to, but its conve- 
nience was also recognized, and, in some places, the merchants have in- 
duced city councils to allow freight traffic at night. Ore from the mines 
has thus been hauled by electric motors thru the streets of Butte, Mon- 
tana. Freight haulage became so important after 1900 that electric rail- 
ways secured a private right-of-way around cities, so that long freight 
trains could be hauled by electric or steam locomotives. Extensive 
yards have been built at the outskirts of some cities. 

Interurban roads are well adapted and organized for the haulage of 
coal, building material, grain, and live stock, in car loads, at regular 
steam-road rates. The investment has already been made in the power 
house and tracks; and freight equipment may be used, particularly at 
night, with a very small additional expenditure for organization and 
power. The freight load, when handled in many trains at night, equalizes 
the work and increases the economy of the power plant. 

Net earnings of many well established interurban lines can neither 
be increased by a larger passenger business nor by future economies in 
operation; but the net earnings are now being increased by developing 
the freight traffic, and the passenger business is being made an advertise- 
ment for the freight traffic department. 

The volume of electric interurban freight business is noted. 

Toledo & Western Railroad, with 84 miles of track, hauled 6759 carloads of 
freight in 1908. The freight rates are the same as for steam roads. The thru freight 
trains are operated daily in each direction between Toledo and Pioneer, Ohio, and 
Adrian, Michigan. The company has 22 station agents, operates in 18 towns, and 
has adopted steam-road, rather than interurban-railway methods in acquiring and 
conducting its business. Its equipment consists of five 30- to 50-ton electric loco- 
motives, 4 electric express cars, and 93 box, flat, stock, and gondola cars. Operation 
would be improved if the western terminals were larger. St. Ry. Journ., Sept. 2, 
1905, p. 328; Sept. 18, 1909, p. 424; E. T. W., June 18, 1910. 

Western Ohio Railway has developed an important fast freight service, and 
particularly a double daily thru service between Toledo and Dayton, 162 miles. 

Ohio Electric Railway has 210 cars in freight service; Indiana Union Traction 
has 129; and Terre Haute, Indianapolis & Eastern has 134 cars equipped with train 
brakes and automatic couplers; and has built freight loops around the larger cities. 



HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 37 

Illinois Traction Company, on its 600 miles of interurban road, operates 18 
express motor cars, 40 express trailers, 30 electric locomotives, 25 grain cars, and 500 
coal gondolas of 80,000 pounds capacity. Freight trains carrying high-class freight 
run in four- to eight-car trains. Coal aggregating 1500 tons is hauled daily. Low- 
grade commodities are hauled in carload lots. The traffic is largely between St. 
Louis, Springfield, Peoria, Champaign, and Danville. Thirty cars of package freight 
are taken in and out of St. Louis daily. The service between these points is so much 
quicker than that given by steam roads that it competes successfully even when the 
steam roads have the short-line mileage. The freight traffic is, for the most part, 
confined to localized business, centering around the larger cities, for which it receives 
a higher rate (1.2 cents) per ton-mile or double that for thru shipments. 




Fig. 8. — Rock Island Southern Railway Express. Car. 

Freight loops have been built around Decatur, Springfield, and Edwardsville, III. 
The freight terminal at St. Louis covers 24 acres of land. 

Joint traffic agreements exist between this company and the Chicago & Eastern 
Illinois, and other intersecting steam roads. Foreign cars are handled on the usual 
per diem basis, under M. C. B. rules, and the company is allowed the same division of 
the rates as a steam road similarly situated, the originating or delivering road receiv- 
ing at least 25 per cent, of the total freight charges. 

This road now handles 3,000,000 tons of freight, and the revenues therefrom are 
$500,000 per annum, or 20 per cent, of its gross earnings. This represents new 
business. The road is an important feeder and distributor for the steam roads. 

Spokane & Inland Empire R, R., with 500 freight cars, and 242 miles of road, 
use 3 six 52-ton and eight 72-ton locomotives to haul 300-ton freight trains over 
heavy grades. 

Puget Sound Electric Railway handles 20 cars of coal per day on a 12-mile haul 
from Renton. Its freight earnings are about $175,000 per year. Its freight equip- 
ment consists of 12 express motor cars, 286 hopper, flat, and gondola cars. 



38 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Portland Railway L. & P. Co. has 8 electric locomotives and 353 freight cars. 

Oregon Electric Railway has 100 freight cars and two 50-ton electric locomotives 
for general freight haulage. It has established, from any point on its 70 miles of line, 
eastbound transcontinental freight rates to all eastern common points in connection 
with the Spokane, Portland & Seattle Railroad and the Southern Pacific, The 
basis is 10 cents per 100 pounds arbitrary over Portland. E. T. W., May 14, 1910. 

Northern Electric Railway of California has 6 electric locomotives and 600 
freight cars. Its 1910 freight revenue was $139,860 or 27 per cent, of its total. 

Pacific Electric Railway, of Los Angeles, Cal., with 600 miles of track, has freight 
agencies in 32 cities and towns. The bulk of the business is local freight for points 
within 40 miles of Los Angeles, and averages 250 car loads each way per day. The 
rates average 8/10 cents per ton-mile for less than car loads, and 5/10 cents per ton- 
mile for car loads. The company has a double- track, private right-of-way into the 
city. Trains are composed of from 4 to 25 cars. Express motor-cars are used for 
the bulk of the work, and some of these motor-cars are equipped to handle 10 trailing 
cars; but heavier trains are hauled by electric locomotives. Car-load business is 
transferred from private sidings and shipping houses and other points, on the city 
streets, at night. The freight equipment includes 18 electric locomotives, each of 
350 h. p.; 20 freight motor cars rated 300 h.p., each hauling 10 loaded cars; 600 box 
and other freight cars, and 300 steel freight cars of 100,000-pound capacity. Its 
freight revenue in 1910 was $444,564 or 9 per cent of its total revenue. 

Express business is usually conducted by national express companies. 
U. S. Express Company and Southern Ohio Express Company handle the 
express business for the principal electric railways of Ohio and Indiana, 
their contracts covering 2600 miles. In all, they now operate on 6000 
miles of electric railway route in the United States, Basis of agreement 
is usually 50 per cent, of the gross earnings/or 25 cents per cwt. for local 
hauls, and a definite guarantee per mile per year, to the electric railway. 

Interstate Commerce Commission, in 1908, considered the needs of 
shippers on different electric lines, and concluded that where there was 
sufficient traffic the Commission was justified in establishing thru routes 
and joint thru rates. It therefore required the establishment of such 
rates. The basis, in general cases, is not more than 10 per cent, of the 
class and commodity rate of the steam railroads between distant points 
and common points on the electric line, for the transpqrtation of inter- 
state traffic. Prior to this time, the steam railroads contended that the 
electric railway companies legally were not railroads, and, because they 
could not reciprocate with exchange equipment, the steam railroads were 
not benefited by such interchange of traffic and joint rates. Interstate 
Commerce Commission decided that the needs of the shipper could not 
thus be set aside. In March, 1911, the Commission ordered the steam 
roads to supply electric roads with switching connections and thru rates, 
E. R.J,, Aprils, 1911, p. 637. 

Financial advantages of electric haulage of freight are argued in 
Chapter III. The present status is indicated by the present gross revenue. 



HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 39 

ANNUAL FREIGHT REVENUE OF ELECTRIC ROADS. 



Name of railway. 



Mile- 
age. 



Year 
noted. 



Freight 
revenue. 



Per 

track 
mile. 



Massachusetts Electric 

Old Colony 

Rhode Island Company 

Connecticut Company 

Fonda, Johnstown & G.ville. . . . 

Schenectady Railway 

Hudson Valley Railway 

Toronto & York Radial 

Buffalo & Lockport Ry 

Utica & Mohawk Valley Ry. . . . 

Albany Southern R. R 

Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley 
Grand Rapids, Holland & Chi. . 
Grand Rapids, Grand Haven & M 

Lake Shore Electric 

Cleveland, Southwest & Colum . . 

Eastern Ohio Traction 

Ohio Electric Ry 

Toledo Urban & Interurban. . . . 

Western Ohio Ry 

Toledo, Port Clinton & Lakes . . . 
Cincinnati Interurban Ry. & T. . 

Scioto Valley Traction 

Toledo & Western 

Dayton & Troy Electric 

Indiana Union Traction 

Indiana, Columbus & Southern . . 
Cincinnati, Georgetown & P . . . 

Toledo & Indiana 

Fort Wayne & Wabash Valley. . 

Indianapolis & Cincinnati 

Terre Haute, Indiana & Eastern . 

Illinois Traction 

East St. Louis & Suburban 

Chicago & Milwaukee Electric . . 

Milwaukee Northern Ry 

Waterloo, C. F. & Northern 

Portland Ry. Light and Power. . 

Puget Sound Electric 

Spokane & Inland Empire 

Los Angeles — Pacific 

Electric Ry., Canada 

Electric Ry., United States 

Steam R. R., United States 



932 


1907 


! 49,400 


381 


1910 


$63,980 


319 


1909 


169,580 


755 


1908 


224,292 


85 


1909 


223,752 


133 


1907 


46,000 


149 


1908 


127,000 


81 


1909 


47,316 


25 


1908 


98,251 


114 


1908 


115,638 


58 


1907 


57,948 


50 


1909 


52,164 


81 


1909 


56,000 


49 


1909 


56,000 


215 


1909 


58,596 


213 


1908 


62,000 


95 


1909 


73,621 


850 


1909 


207,553 


71 


1908 


28,000 


112 


1909 


54,823 


55 


1909 


23,281 


116 


1909 


52,378 


78 


1910 


50,934 


80 


1909 


81,000 


49 


1909 


26,777 


365 


1909 


181,168 


65 


1908 


20,000 


57 


1909 


56,365 


56 


1909 


34,651 


212 


1909 


56,706 


116 


1909 


44,213 


400 


1909 


180,662 


530 


1909 


400,000 


181 


1908 


63,619 


186 


1909 


58,855 


64 


1909 


16,772 


100 


1909 


90,226 


472 


1909 


153,631 


200 


1909 


143,686 


201 


1910 


472,918 


260 


1910 


207,778 


988 


1909 


575,000 


34,405 


1907 


7,438,582 


327,975 


1907 


1,936,000,000 



$ 53. 

168. 

531. 

290. 
2632. 

347. 

852. 

584. 
3930. 
1014. 
1000. 
1043. 

691. 
1143. 

272. 

291. 

775. 

244. 

400. 

489. 

423. 

451. 

653. 
1012. 

546. 

496. 

309. 

989. 

619. 

267. 

381. 

451. 

755. 

351. 

300. 

262. 

902. 

325. 

718. 
2362. 

799. 

572. 

216. 
5903. 



40 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



The freight revenues of electric roads doubled between 1902 and 1907, and are 
now increasing at a rapid rate. 

References on Interurban Freight Traffic: U. S. Census Report, 1907, pp. 92 and 
138; annual reports of railway companies; Elec. Ry. Journ., July 11, 1908, Oct., 
10, 1908; pp. 824 and 1069; Oct. 8, 1910, p. 610. 

FREIGHT REVENUE OF ELECTRIC ROADS. 

Last Report of State Railroad Commission. 



State. 


Miles of 
road. 


Passenger 
earnings. 


Freight 
earnings. 


Freight 
per cent. 


Rhode Island . . . 


393 


S5,284,716 


$157,351 
175,000 
700,000 
910,000 
533,329 
426,000 


3.0 


Massachusetts 




Indiana 




9,538,776 
11,000,000 
10,458,000 
13,350,000 


7.6 


Ohio 


2794 


8.3 


Michigan 


5.3 


Illinois 


1303 


3.2 







Railroads use electric locomotives for freight haulage in regular service 
notably on the Baltimore & Ohio since 1895; Hoboken Shore Line, 1898; 
Buffalo & Lockport, 1898; Paris-Orleans, 1900; St. Louis & Belleville, 
1901; Cincinnati, Georgetown & Portsmouth, 1903; Grand Trunk, 1908; 
New York, New Haven & Hartford, 1910; Michigan Central, 1910. 

In America, about 310 electric locomotives are now used for freight haulage. 

In England, North-Eastern Railway, has used six 55-ton electric locomotives 
and also multiple-unit cars for freight and express service since 1904. The cars are 
55 feet long, have four 125-h.p. motors, and handle luggage, parcels, and fish; and 
they are coupled to either an electric or a steam-driven train. 

ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES. 

A brief history of electric locomotives is presented: 
In 1880, Edison ran a number of experimental locomotives at Menlo 
Park with power from a dynamo. The 1880 locomotive is now at Brook- 
lyn Polytechnic Institute. In 1882, Henry Villard, President^ of the 
Northern Pacific R. P.., contracted for an electric locomotive for freight 
service in the Dakotas. It was equipped by Edison with a series belted 
220-volt, 10-h. p. motor and hauled three-car trains, power being supplied 
thru the two track rails. Hammer, in Elec. World, June 10, 1899, and 
Elec. Review, July 23, 1910, gives photos, drawings, and maps. 

In 1883, Edison, Field, Mailloux, and Rea operated a geared and 
belted 3-ton electric locomotive, "The Judge," using a third-rail con- 
tact line, over 1550 feet of track at the Chicago Railway Exposition and 
at the Louisville Exposition. A Weston dynamo and motor were used. 
St. Ry. Journ., March 5, 1904, p. 451; December 10, 1904, p. 1035. 

In 1883, Daft ran a successful small standard-gage locomotive 



HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 



41 




Fig. 9. — Edison Electric Locomotive, 1880, 
Positive and negative rails; armature belted to axle. 









mm^^. 


' y4 




^ "fWL :/ 


.^xsss^ 



Fig. 10. — Improved Edi.son Electric Locomotive, 1882. 
A steam locomotive designer had been employed. 



42 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



between Mt. McGregor and Saratoga, N. Y., 12 miles, and hauled a 
regular 10-ton steam passenger car. A double-belted, 130-volt, 15- 
h.p. motor with countershafts was used, and a third rail. 

In 1884, Daft operated locomotives and coaches, in experimental work, 
on a 2-mile road between Baltimore and Hampden. The motors on two 
electric locomotives were a 130-volt, direct-current type. The gearing 
used was single-reduction, with cut steel pinions and cut cast-iron gears. 
The third rail was used, also an underground trolley. Horatio A. Foster 
installed the equipment. Elec. World, March 5, 1904. See Fig. 2. 




Fig. 11. — Daft Electric Locomotive "Ampere". 
Saratoga, Mt. McGregor and Lake George Railroad, 1883. 

In 1885, Daft developed a 2-mile, third-rail line for the Ninth Avenue Elevated, 
New York, from Fourteenth to Fiftieth Streets. A 10-ton, 4-wheel locomotive was 
equipped with a 75-h. p., single-reduction, 450- volt motor. The truck had two 48-inch 
drivers and two 33-inch trailer wheels. Four-car trains were hauled at night experi- 
mentally, for a long period. The locomotive called the "Franklin" was re-equipped 
in 1888 with 4-coupJed drivers and a 125-h. p. motor and hauled an 8-car train at 
10 miles per hour. The "Franklin" avoided the use of belts, gears, and cranks, 
power being transmitted by friction from wheels on the armature to wheels on the 
axle. The armature shaft carried a 9-inch diameter friction wheel, with a 4-inch 
ground face, which bore down upon a 36-inch friction wheel, keyed to the axle of the 
drivers. The friction was varied by means of screw pressure. See Martin and 
Wetzler, "The Electric Motor," second edition, p. 79, for drawings; St. Ry. Journ., 
Oct. 8, 1904, p. 529; A. I. E. E., June, 1899. 



In 1888, Johnston, Sprague, Hutchinson, and Field designed and 
operated a heavy experimental side-rod locomotive on the Second Avenue 
line and Thirty-fourth Street branch line of thejNew York Elevated Road. 
Martin and Wetzler, ''The Electric Motor," 2d Edition, 1888, p. 204. 

In 1890, City and South London began the use of Mather and Piatt, 
single-truck, 15-ton gearless locomotives in its 11-foot diameter tube 
railways, each locomotive hauling three 8-ton coaches. There are now 
58 locomotives, and they are in heavier service. 



HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 



43 



In 1893, Chicago Columbian Exposition exhibited a General Electric 
30-ton, 4-wheel freight locomotive. 

Length was 16 feet, wheel base 66 inches, drivers 44 inches. Motors were 240-h. p. 
500-voIt units, supported on spiral springs resting on the locomotive truck frames. 
Armatures were iron- clad, gearless, quill-mounted, and connected to axles by flexible 
couplings. Series-parallel controllers were used. At 30 m. p. h., the rated drawbar 
pull was 6000 lbs. Maximum drawbar pull was 13,000 lbs. In tug with a steam 
locomotive having a greater weight on drivers, the electric locomotive showed the 
greater tractive effort. Description and photo in Electrical Engineer, July 12, 1893. 



€ 




^ 


HB^ 




4 






Iwl 






■■! 


S^M^^SSfi 


^^^^HH 


^Hw 


m^ 




m^m 


IP 


^^ 


^^^Q 


^^^^^H 


^^^ 


^: 


^^!a 


^TT^^^BBi^^js^^^HMBMl^^^^^^w 


■^Hb 



Fig. 12.— Electric Locomotive. S. D. Field, 1888. 

The armature was crank-connected to the side rod. Motor was spring mounted on the truck. 

Weight 13 tons; drivers 42-inch. Direct current at 800 volts. Third rail. 

In 1893, the North American Co., Henry Villard, president, had a loco- 
motive built by the Baldwin and the Westinghouse companies, under the 
supervision of Messrs. Sprague, Duncan, and Hutchinson, for experi- 
mental work in freight hauling and switching at Chicago. 

The locomotive weighed 60 tons. There were four sets of 56-inch coupled 
drivers. The rigid wheel base was 15 feet. The connection between the armature 
shaft and the drivers was by means of gearing. Motors used were four 200-h. p. 
Westinghouse, iron-clad type, 225 r. p. m., direct-current, 800-volt, 250-ampere units. 
Series-parallel control was used. Magnets were compound wound, but the shunt 
field had only sufficient turns to keep the speed within reasonable limits at light loads. 
The motors were designed to return current to the line when running down grades. 
See drawings and descriptions in Electrical Engineer, July 12, 1893; Oct. 8., 1893, 
p. 339; Baldwin- Westinghouse publication, ''Electric .Locomotives," 1896; Elec, 
World, March 5, 1904 



44 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



In 1895, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad began the use of five 96-ton. 
1040-h.p. electric locomotives for hauling all ordinary passenger and 
freight trains thru its Baltimore Belt Line tunnel and terminal. These 
are still in active service and seven freight locomotives have been added. 
The steam railroad field was practically uninvaded until this date. 

In 1898, Buffalo & Lockport Railway began the use of two 640-h. p. 
locomotives for the haulage of ordinary freight, in 8- to 12-car trains, 
between Tonawanda and Lockport, N. Y. They are still in active service. 

In 1900, St. Louis & Belleville Electric Railway, a pioneer electric 
freight road, began the use of two 50-ton locomotives. For ten years, 
720-ton, 16-car coal trains have been hauled in regular service. 







.;^- •>-■>'*>.?#**■-*" ■•-',-,'; '..iimIiS'^'P>'K-!t'..«MBi^i 



Fig. 13. — St. Louis and Belleville Electric Railway. 
Fifty-ton locomotive and ordinary 720-ton coal train. 

In 1900, Central London Railway, an underground tube road, in- 
stalled 40 locomotives each equipped with 4 GE-56, gearless, direct- 
current, 170-h.p. motors. The armature core was built directly on the 
axle. The locomotive weighed 48 tons, about 13 tons spring-bourne and 
35 tons not spring-bourne. The rigid construction of these locomotives 
shook and damaged the buildings above. They were superseded by 
locomotives equipped with 4 GE-55, geared, 150-h.p., motors. The 
gear ratio was 3.3 and the weight was 34 tons. There was still some 
vibration, and the locomotives were abandoned for 7-car motor-car 
trains with 500 h. p. per train. St. Ry. Journ., Oct. 11, 1902; Nov. 7,1903. 

Mr. W. J. Clark, in the U. S. Census Report on Street and Electric 
Railways of 1907, has listed 558 steam locomotives on 126 roads which 
were replaced by electric units on electric railways; also 863 additional 
steam locomotives which were replaced by electrical equipment on 24 
steam railroads. Many steam locomotives have since been discarded. 

^'Electric Locomotives" form the subject of succeeding chapters. 



HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 45 

ELECTRIC TRACTION BY ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 

Electric traction by electric railways for ordinary service forms one 
step in the advance in the art of transportation. Electric power was 
first used for freight and passenger service by roads which were not 
formerly steam railroads, but which were organized to build and operate 
new railways with electric motive power. The best first examples of 
the American roads are listed. 

Albany & Hudson R. R, Buffalo & Lockport Railway. 

Lake Shore Electric Railway. Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley R. R. 

Scioto Valley Traction Co. Indiana Union Traction Co. 

Terre Haute, Indianapolis & East. Ohio Electric Railway. 
Aurora, Elgin & Chicago R. R. Chicago & Milwaukee Electric R. R. 
East St. Louis & Suburban Ry. Illinois Traction Co. 
Puget Sound Electric Railway. Spokane & Inland Empire R. R. 

ELECTRIC TRACTION BY STEAM RAILROADS. 

Electric traction was first used by steam railroads for special situa- 
tions. Physical and financial advantages were gained. Many of the 
special situations have been listed, viz: 

Prevention of competition. 

Elevated lines, subways, and tunnels. 

Mountain grade lines for heaviest service. 

Terminal railways, with congested traffic. 

Freight service for local railways. 

Utilization of water power. See ^^ Power Plants." 

Electric locomotives for terminals, switching yards, factory service. 

Motor-car trains in place of steam locomotive-hauled trains, for 
heaviest rapid transit and suburban railway passenger service. 

Change in motive power to improve a bad financial situation, to 
regain traffic and to reduce expenses. This is considered in ^^ Advantages 
of Electric Traction," and in '^Procedure in Railroad Electrification." 

ELECTRIC TRACTION IN GENERAL USE FOR TRAINS. 

Electric traction now receives consideration for economic reasons, and 
for passenger and freight train service, by electric railway corporations 
and by steam railroad corporations. 

This is the work of the present and future. The tendency at present 
is to systematically consolidate the electric railways, to increase the long 
runs, to run two-car trains in place of long single cars, to obtain better 
management, to effect economies, and to standardize. Great savings are 
being effected as railways are brought under one financial and engineering 
management. Thru electric-train service between the leading cities. 



4G ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

St. Louis, Springfield, Terre Haute, Indianapolis, Chicago, Cincinnati, 
Cleveland, Buffalo, Albany, Boston, New York, and Washington, is being 
developed by interurban railways; and this will be followed by the 
electrification of trunk lines. 

Steam railroads electrify their lines for economy of operation and to 
regain lost traffic. It is a noticeable fact, frequently impressed, that as 
the steam railroads electrify, the work is of a most substantial character. 

Electric power will first be adopted, to the financial advantage of the 
public and of the steam railroad, in zones around our great cities: Boston, 
New Haven, New York, Philadelphia, Washington, Baltimore, Pitts- 
burg, Albany, Buffalo, Montreal, Toronto, Chicago, Rock Island, Minneap- 
olis and St. Paul, St. Louis, San Francisco, and Los Angeles. Co-opera- 
tive plans for the generation of electricity will effect large savings in 
capital. Water powers of the Cascade, Rocky, and Sierra Nevada Moun- 
tains will be used by railroad corporations to haul their electric trains, 
at first near Denver, Salt Lake, Spokane, Seattle, and in the Columbia 
and Sacramento River Valleys. Passenger trains will use electric 
traction first, but for economy freight haulage must be added. 

In the early days, 1860, passenger traffic produced the larger part of 
the earnings of steam railroads, but the freight earnings soon exceed the 
passenger earnings. The freight earnings of electric railroads will, like- 
wise, soon exceed the passenger earnings, both in amount and in profit. 

The history of steam railroads shows that there was at first no idea 
of interchange of traffic, involving the use of cars and locomotives; but 
that in 1878 a standard gage for track, interchangeable (M. C. B.) 
couplers, brakes, heating pipes, and signals, were adopted. Likewise, 
electric railroads are now being systematized so that coaches, coupled as 
in ordinary railroad trains, will have automatic brakes, standard heating 
apparatus, etc. Electric trunk-line roads must standardize, and use 
interchangeable electric systems, voltage, cycles, and phase, so that 
direct-current and alternating-current service may be used for any train. 

Regarding the work done, an index, in the first part of Chapter XV, 
of all steam railroads using electric traction for trains, shows that 
not one per cent, of the total mileage has yet been electrified. 

Electric power has economic advantages which are being utilized to 
improve transportation methods. The idea is not merely to supersede 
steam-locomotive traction, but rather it is to assist in producing efficient 
transportation by new methods. 

The importance of electric railway transportation in the United 
States may be shown by statistics; and when these are compared with 
other statistics they show that the capital invested and the gross earn- 
ings of electric railways are more than twice as large as those for all 
other public electric utilities combined. 



HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 47 

EARNINGS AND MILEAGE OF RAILWAYS OPERATING ELECTRIC TRAINS. 





Gross 


Gross 


Gross 


Elec. 


Name of electric railway. 


earnings 


earnings 


earnings 


mileage 




1908. 


1909. 


1910. 


1911. 


Boston Elevated 


$14,074,696 5614.993.853 




485 


Massachusetts Electric 


7,809,010 


8,052,355 


8,560,949 


934 


The Rhode Island Company 


4,217,022 


4,192,958 


4,502,922 


319 


The Connecticut Company 


6,961,436 


6,841,425 


7,235,729 


780 


Interboro Rapid Transit 


25,279,470 


27,160,036 


28,987,648 


85 


Long Island R. R 


9,818,544 


10,898,371 


9,779,116 


263 


Hudson & Manhattan R. R 




743,701 


2,237,459 


18 


Albany Southern R. R 


267,777 




480,062 


62 


Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville . . 


809,925 


773,849 


904,751 


85 


Utica & Mohawk Valley. 


1 151,031 


1,193,806 • 


1,257,621 
503,218 


127 


Rochester, Syracuse & Eastern. . . . 


310,958 


382,037 


168 


Windsor, Essex & Lake Shore 


35,585 


85,273 


106,225 


40 


Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley . . . 


524,509 


555,402 


576,029 


50 


Michigan United Rys 


573,439 


1,026,796 


1,248,889 


254 


Cleveland, Southwestern & Colum. 


775,737 


827,898 


955,591 


243 


Northern Ohio Traction 


1,890,473 


2,177,642 


2,437,426 


214 


Mahoning & Shenango 


1,747,927 


1,966,066 


2,251,482 


149 


Eastern Ohio Traction 


259,172 


270,759 




94 


Toledo & Western 


236,538 




301,618 
558,374 


84 


Western Ohio 


441,791 


490,328 


112 


Scioto Valley Traction 


355,000 


383,053 


422,914 


79 


Fort Wayne & Wabash Valley 


1,322,720 


1,414,526 


1,526,587 


212 


Indiana Union Traction 


1,902,330 


2,103,018 


2,364,628 


373 


Indianapohs, Columbus & Southern 


344,694 


385,424 


418,287 


59 


Indianapolis & Cincinnati Traction . 


200,355 


214,990 


448,099 


112 


Cincinnati, Georgie. & Portsmouth. 


164,493 


167,514 


174,530 


57 


South Side Elevated R. R 


2,214,690 


2,234,973 


2,457,489 


46 


Metropolitan West Side Elevated . . 


2,746,840 


2,818,430 


3,069,945 


57 


Chicago & Oak Park Elevated 


869,892 


825,453 


840,378 


20 


Northwestern Elevated R. R 


2,463,188 


2,540,883 


2,632,039 


51 


Aurora, Elgin & Chicago 


1,408,892 


1,467,215 


1,608,438 


160 


Illinois Traction Co 


4,089,621 


4,752,082 


6,106,250 


550 


East St. Louis & Suburban 


2,009,514 


2,035,790 


2,364,142 


181 


Chicago & Milwaukee Electric 


597,977 


921,019 


945,152 


166 


Milwaukee Northern . ... 




85,444 
91,438 


287,848 


64 


Rock Island Southern 


76,191 




82 


Fort Dodge, Des Moines & Southern. 




432,540 


450,747 
234,072 


140 


Waterloo, Cedar Falls & Northern . 


217,103 


251,834 


90 


Northern Texas Traction 


1,080,577 


1,259,551 


1,442,807 


82 


Spokane & Inland Empire 


1,146,177 


1,269,100 


1,763,614 


287 


Puget Sound Electric 


1,694,973 


1,869,096 


1,915,289 


200 


Oregon Electric 






554,819 
512,992 


80 


Northern Electric. . . .... 




422,901 


138 









48 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

STEAM AND ELECTRIC RAILWAY STATISTICS SUMMARIZED. 



Statistics from government 
reports 



Steam railroads 
1907. 



Electric railways 
1907. 



Ratio 
electric 
to steam. 



Passengers carried 

Rides per inhabitant per year. 

Total car mileage 

Receipts from passengers 

Income from freight 

Income from operation 

Operating expenses 

Net earnings 

Taxes and fixed charges 

Net income 

Dividends 

Surplus 

Capitalization, at par 

Total mileage 

Passenger cars 

Freight cars, etc 

Total cars 

Locomotives 

Motor cars 

Horse-power capacity 



873,905,133 

9 

29,652,000,000 

$564,606,342 

1,936,000,000 

2,649,731,911 

1,749,164,649 

900,567,262 

420,717,658 

479,849,604 

227,394,962 

252,454,642 

18,885,000,000 

327,975 

43,973 

1,991,557 

2,126,594 

51,891 



5,000,000 



9,533,080,766 

90 

1,618,343,584 

$382,132,494 

7,438,582 

429,744,254 

251,309,252 

178,435,002 

138,094,716 

40,343,286 

25,558,857 

14,781,429 

3,774,000,000 

34,404^ 

70;016 

13,625 

84,000 

1172 

68,874 

2,475,000 



10.900 
10.000 
.054 
.677 
.004 
.162 
.143 
.200 
.325 
.084 
.113 
.059 
.200 
.105 
1.600 
.007 
.040 
.007 



490 



^ The mileage of electric railways in 1911 is about 36,000 miles. 
^ The number of electric locomotives in 1911 is about 430. 



LITERATURE. 



References on Historical Development of Electric Railways. 

Kramer: "Elektrische Eisenbahn," Vienna and Leipzig, 1883. 

Reckenzaum: "Electric Traction on Railways and Tramways," Biggs & Co., 
London, 1892. 

Martin & Wetzler: "The Electric Motor," Johnston, N. Y., 1887-8. 

Crosby & Bell: "The Electric Railway," Johnston, N. Y., 1892. 

Houston & Kennelly: "Electric Street Railways," McGraw, N. Y., 1906. 

Bentley: The First Electric Car, E. W., March 5, 1904. 

Pope, F. L.: Early Electric Railways, E. W., Jan. 31, 1891. 

Griffin: Development of Electric Railways, Electrical Engineer, Sept. 16, 1891. 

Daft, Sprague, Lamme, Griffin, Dodd, Bentley, and others, in S. R. J., Oct. 8, 1904; 
S. R. J., Dec. 26, 1903. 

Reid; Electric Traction History, Cassiers, August, 1899. 

Sprague: Historical Notes, Electrical Review, N. Y., Jan., 1901; Electrical Engineer, 
N. Y., March, 1890; April, 1891; E. W., March 5, 1904; History and Develop- 
ment of Electric Railways, International Electrical Congress. Section F., St. 



HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 49 

Louis, 1904; S. R. J., Oct. 8, 1904, p. 581; The Electric Railway, A Resume 

of Early Experiments, Century, N. Y., July, 1905. 
Parshall: Sprague Electric Motor, S. R. J., Aug., 1899; A. I. E. E., May, 1890. 
Shepardson: Electric Railway Motor Tests, A. I. E. E., July, 1892. 
Martin: U. S. Census Report on Street and Interurban Railways, 1902, p. 161. 
Historical Interurban Railways, E. R. J., Oct. 2, 1909, p. 571. 
Review on Heavy Electric Traction, E. R. J., Oct. 2, 1909, p. 583. 
Helt: First Electrified Steam Roads, S. R. J., June, 1897; Sept. 1898, Aug. 25 and 

Sept. 8, 1900. 



CHAPTER II. 
CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES. 

Outline. 

Introduction on Railway Practice. 
Locomotive Classification. 
Data Sheets on Proportions. 
Physical Characteristics : 

Self-contained poWer units, water supply, coal, boilers, center of gravity, 
wheel base, simple engines, design for service conditions, weight, capacity, 
heating surface, tractive effort, piston speed, horse power. 

Operating Characteristics : 

Furnace conditions, high rates of evaporation, heat radiation, stand-by losses, 
weather ratings, operation by enginemen, unbalanced forces, track destruction, 
friction losses, speed of trains, mechanical strains, locomotive repairs, con- 
densation, superheat, steam consumption, economy of coal. 

Speed -Torque Characteristics : 

Indicator diagrams, short strokes, piston speed, initial steam pressure, losses 
in pressure, indefinite point of cut-off, clearance, back pressure, expansion of 
steam, mean-effective steam pressure, relation between speed and torque, 
work done in cylinders. 

Compound Locomotives. 

Mallet Locomotives. 

Turbine Locomotives. 

Cost of Operation, fuel, repairs, total. 

Literature. 



50 



CHAPTER 11. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Modern steam locomotives in railroad practice to-day are accepted 
as the approved motive power for the transportation of ordinary trains, 
because steam traction has certain physical and economic advantages. 
Where coal is cheap and service is infrequent, the steam locomotives 
will continue to hold the advantage. 

Steam locomotives represent the result of seventy years of crystallized 
experience, in which much has been learned about design and perform- 
ance, and this may be used as a foundation for still further advance. 

Improvements or changes in the motive power used for railroad 
trains cannot be entertained until after there is a complete understanding 
of the physical characteristics and the economic performance of the 
modern steam locomotive. An intimate knowledge of the good and bad 
physical features, and of the operating results, is needed. Practical 
experience in round houses, in service tests, and on dynamometer cars 
is the most profitable means of collecting the information. 

A study will now be made of the furnace and boiler, the limitations 
in design, the indicator cards, the relation of speed to drawbar pull, the 
dynamometer records, the result of weather conditions, the effect of 
railway grades, the effect of underload and overload, and the economic 
results from ordinary and special locomotives. The nature of the facts 
is of greatest importance. The data contained in the following pages 
summarize, for general use and for comparative purposes, some of the 
essential facts and conditions concerning present-day steam locomotives. 

LOCOMOTIVE CLASSIFICATION. 

Locomotive classification is made with reference to the number and 
arrangement of the wheels. The number of driving wheels of steam 
locomotives is generally limited to two or three pairs in passenger service 
and to four pairs in freight service. The number and diameter of side- 
connected drivers establish the length of the rigid driving-wheel base. 
Leading wheels are required to ease the shock, to guide the locomotive 
in the curves, and over variations in track alignment — a two-wheeled lead- 
ing truck for freight engines, and a four-wheeled leading truck for high- 
speed passenger engines. A pair of trailing wheels often supports the 
heavy fire-box. 

Switchers have 4, 6, 8, or 10 small driving wheels, a rigid truck frame, 
and are usually without leading or trailing wheels. 

Prairies have 2 leading truck wheels, 6 large driving wheels, and 2 
trailing truck wheels, over which there is a deep and wide fire-box. 

51 



52 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



This type is common for heavy passenger or fast freight service on 
prairie divisions. 

Moguls have 2 leading truck wheels and 6 driving wheels, and they 
are used for heavy freight service. 

Consolidations have 2 leading truck wheels and 8 driving wheels, and 




Fig. 14. — Typical Steam Locomotive, Mogul Type. 

are a standard for heavy freight service. This type is frequently a 2- 
or 4-cylinder compound. The wheel base is long. Speeds are not high. 

Decapods have 2 leading truck wheels and 10 driving wheels giving 
the maximum wheel base. Few are used. 

Eight -wheeled, or Americans, have 4 leading truck wheels and 4 




Fig. 15. — Typical Steam Locomotive, Eight-wheel or American Type. 

large driving wheels. This is a light-weight, simple locomotive, for 
ordinary passenger service. 

Ten -wheelers have 4 leading truck wheels and 6 driving wheels, and 
are used for both passenger and fast freight service. Twelve-wheelers 
or mastadons are seldom used. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 53 

Atlantics have 4 leading truck wheels, 4 driving wheels, and 2 wheels 
at the grates to carry a large fire-box. This type is used for medium- 
sized passenger trains, maintaining high speed with few stops. 

Pacifies have 4 leading wheels, 6 driving wheels, and 2 at the grates, 
for the heaviest passenger trains. 




Fig. 16. — Typical Steam Locomotive, Pacific Type, 

Balanced have Atlantic or Pacific wheel arrangement. The front 
driver axle is generally a crank axle. A good balance of the reciprocating 
efforts of the three or four pistons is obtained, and this eliminates most 
of the hammer blow and allows a greater dead weight per driver axle. 





m > -, 












W 


mi 




%^m^^ 


pp 


^ 


rr 






~ 







Fig. 17. — Typical Steam Locomotive, Ten-wheel Type. 

making it a desirable high-speed passenger locomotive. See page 64. 
Mallet articulated have 2 sets of cylinders on each side of the loco- 
motive. working in compound, articulated or hinged trucks, each with 3 
or 4 pairs of driving wheels, generally with leading and sometimes with 
trailing truck wheels. There is one boiler, rightly attached to the rear 
truck and supported on the front truck by means of sliding bearings. 



54 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWyVY TRAINS 




Fig. 18. — Typical Steam Locomotive, Atlantic Type. 




Fig. 19.— Typical Steam Locomotive, Pbaihie Type. 




Fig. 20. — Typical Steam Locomotive, Consolidation Type. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 55 



CLASSIFICATION. 

Classification of steam locomotives is represented in numerals by the 
number and arrangement of the pairs of wheels, commencing at the front. 




Fig. 21. 



-Typical Steam Locomotive, Mallet or Articulated Type. 
The Delaware & Hudson Company. — ^Freight service. 



STEAM LOCOMOTIVE CLASSIFICATION. 



Type of 
Locomotive. 


Order of 
wheels. 


No. of 
wheels. 


Wt. on 
drivers. 


Heating 
surface. 


Ordinary service. 


Switcher 

Prairie 

Mogul 

Consolidation .... 

Decapod 

American 

10-wheel 

Atlantic 

Pacific 


^000 

/^oOOOo 

^oOOO 

^oOOOO 

Z^oOOOOO 

zLooOO 

^ooOOO 

zlooOOo 

Z.00OOO0 

/LooOOo 

Z_oOOO-000 


0-6-0 

2-6-2 

2-6-0 

2-8-0 

2-10-0 

4-4-0 

4-6-0 

4-4-2 

4-6-2 

4-4-2 

2-6-6-0 


100% 

75% 
86% 
88% 
90% 
65% 
75% 
55% 
60% 
57% 
90% 


1200-3000 
2000-3800 
2000-2400 
2200-3600 
2300-4200 
1600-2400 
2000-2600 
2600-3300 
3000-3800 
2700-3400 
3300-7800 


Local and helper. 
Heavy passenger. 
Heavy freight. 
Heavy freight. 
Heavy freight. 
Light passenger. 
Passenger and freight. 
High-speed passenger. 
Heaviest passenger. 
High-speed passenger. 
Mountain freight. 


Balanced 

Mallet 



The data are from various sources. Some from a paper by L. H. Fry, before the New York Rail- 
road Club, with which the data on more recent installations have been averaged, and some from the 
American and Baldwin locomotive catalogues. 



STEAM LOCOMOTIVES USED IN THE UNITED STATES. 

Reports of Interstate Commerce Commission, June 30, 1907, 1908, 1909. 



Service. 


i 

1907. 


1908. 


1909. 


Cylinder. 


1907. 


1908. 


1909. 




1 

.! 12,814 

. 32,079 

9,258 

1,237 


13,205 

33,840 

9,529 

1,124 


13,317 

33,935 

9,695 

1,123 




51,891 

1,727 
945 
825 


54,230 

1,714 

923 

831 


54,835 


Freight 

Switching. . . . 
Unclassified . . 


Four-cylinder compound. . . 
Two-cylinder compound . . . 
Unclassified 


1,603 

888 
744 


Total 


.: 55,388 

1 


57,698 


58,070 


55,388 


57,698 


58,070 



56 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



Locomotive 


Single expansion. 


Four-cylinder compound. 


Two-cylinder compound. 


type. 


1907. 


1908. 


1909. 


1907. 


1908. 


1909. 


1907. 


1908. 


1909. 


Switcher 

Prairie 

Mogul 

Consolidation. 

Decapod 

8-wheel 


7,703 

990 

5,333 

15,025 

17 

10,041 

9,666 

613 

1,401 

640 

53 

409 


8408 

1,152 

5,510 

15,987 

17 

9,718 

10,202 

708 

1,490 

789 

57 

492 


8,335 

1,082 

5,502 

16,311 

36 

9,401 

10,067 

1,003 

1,530 

1,069 

52 

447 


3 

222 
142 
422 

8 
374 

6 

262 

47 


6 

254 

130 

352 

4 

10 

348 

2 

262 

47 


9 

255 

99 

301 

4 

5 
336 

1 

272 

47 


22 

36 

181 

394 


22 
36 

178 

387 


22 

36 

157 

379 


4 

256 

51 






10-wheel 

12-wheel 

Atlantic 


251 
49 


249 
43 


Pacific 








Balanced 









Other types . . 


241 


299 


274 


1 



923 




2 


Total 


51,891 


54,230 


54,835 


1J27 


1,714 


1,603 


945 


888 



On an average, about 3000 locomotives or 5 per cent., are added per year. 
Changes from one type to another show the appreciation of certain types. 



DATA SHEETS ON PROPORTIONS. 



PROPORTIONS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES. 
Weights, Lengths, Heating Surface, 



Locomotive 
Classification. 


Weight in tons. 


Wheel base in feet. 


Tons 

per 

axle. 


Tons per foot. 


Heat, 
surf, 
sq. ft. 


H.P. 


Driv. 


Eng. 


Total. 


Driv. 


Eng. 


Total. 


Driv. 

base. 


Eng. 
base. 


Loco, 
base. 


per 
ton. 


Switch 

Prairie 

Mogul 

Consolidated . 
American .... 

10-wheel 

Atlantic 

Pacific 

Balanced .... 
Articulated . . 


77 
75 
66 
84 
40 
65 
52 
60 
50 
150 
200 


77 

100 

75 

95 

65 

87 

90 

100 

100 

175 

230 


120 
160 
130 
160 
115 
140 
155 
175 
170 
250 
350 


11-3 
11-4 
15-0 
16-3 

8-6 
14-6 

7-0 
12-4 

7-0 
10-0 
16-6 


11-3 
29-0 
23-3 
24-6 
24-0 
26-0 
27-0 
32-0 
30-0 
45-0 
52-0 


40-0 
55-0 
53-0 
55-0 
50-0 
54-0 
58-0 
60-O 
60-0 
83-0 
100-0 


25.7 
25.0 
22.0 
21.0 
20.0 
21.5 
26.0 
20.0 
28.0 
25.0 
25.0 


6.2 
6.6 
4.3 
5.2 
4.7 
4.5 
7.4 
4.9 
7.1 
7.5 
6.1 


6.2 
3.4 
3.2 
3.9 
2.7 
2.7 
3.3 
3.1 
3.3 
3.9 
4.4 


3.0 
2.9 
2.4 
2.9 
2.3 
2.6 
2.7 
2.9 
2.8 
3.0 
3.5 


2000 
3000 
2200 
3000 
2000 
2300 
3000 
3300 
2600 
5585 
7000 


7.2 
8.0 
7.3 
8.0 
7.5 
7.1 
8.3 
8.1 
7.0 
9.6 
8 6 







Data are from Sinclair's "Twentieth Century Locomotive"; McClellan's article to A. I. E. E., 
June, 1905, p. 565; L. H. Fry's New York R. R. Club paper of Sept., 1903; catalogues of American 
and Baldwin locomotives. 

Average and ordinary units are considered. Maximum tons per driver axle frequently exceed 
32, in large locomotives; average tons per driver axle are 30 per cent, greater than European practice. 

See comparable table under Electric Locomotive Design. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 57 
GREAT NORTHERN RAILWAY STEAM LOCOMOTIVE DATA. 















Wt. 

per 

axle. 


Locomotive Wt. 


Locomo- 


Let- 
ter. 


Wheel 
arrange. 


Heating 
surface. 


Diam. 
driv. 


Cylinders, 
dimensions 






tive type. 


















Engine. 


Total. 


Mallet . . 




L2 


2-6-6-2 


3914 


55 


20&31x30 


41,667 


288,000 


451,000 


Mallet . . 




LI 


2-6-6-2 


5700 


55 


21i&33x32 


52,667 


355,000 


503,000 


Atlantic . 




Kl 


4-4-2 


3488 


73 


15&25X26 


50,000 


208,000 


356,000 


Prairie . . 


. .! Jl 


2-6-2 


3488 


69 


22x30 


53,000 


209,000 


357,000 


Pacific . . 


. . H3 


4-6-2 


3058 


69 


25x30 


53,000 


227,000 


375,000 


Pacific . . 




H2 


4-6-2 


3931 


69 


22x30 


53,000 


227,000 


375,000 


Pacific . . 


.. HI 


4-6-2 


3466 


73 


21x28 


54,000 


207,000 


346,000 


Mastodon 


.. G5 


4-8-0 


3332 


55 


21x34 


43,000 


212,000 


308,000 


Mastodon 




Gl 


4-8-0 


2307 


55 


20x26 


33,000 


156,000 


242,000 


Consolidat FIO 


2-8-0 


3340 


55 


21x34 


49,000 


216,000 


312,000 


Consolidat . F8 


2-8-0 


2767 


55 


20x32 


45,000 


195,000 


318,000 


Consolidat . Fl 


2-8-0 


1596 


55 


19x26 


30,000 


136,000 


222,000 


10- Wheel . . E13 


4-6-0 


1713 


55 


19x24 




110,000 


192,000 


10-AVheel . . 


E6 


4-6-0 


2113 


63 


19x26 


40,000 


152,000 


272,000 


Mogul 


D5 


2-6-0 


1600 


55 


19x26 


38,000 


130,000 


216,000 


8- Wheel . . 


B23 


4-4-0 


1600 


63 


18x24 




94,000 


168,000 


Switcher . . AlO 


0-6-0 


1846 


49 


19x28 


45,600 


137,000 


212,000 


Switcher . . 


Al 


0-6-0 


785 


49 


16x20 


23,300 


70,000 


112,000 



This is merely a good representative list of locomotives, for reference. 

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

Modern steam locomotives in common railroad service have the follow- 
ing physical characteristics: 

A self-contained power unit with water supply, coal supply, boiler, 
and two complete engines, is embodied. It is a power house on wheels, 
mounted on trucks and moving over track at speeds up to 60 m. p. h. 

The water supply comes from many lakes, streams, and wells, and 
pumping stations are located 10 to 20 miles apart. Since alkali and 
mineralized waters must be used in many cases, they must be treated 
to prevent bad scaling, blistering of plates, foaming, and water in cylinder. 

The best coal, bituminous screened lump, is used. Coal substations 
with handling machinery are located 20 to 50 miles apart. Energy is 
required to haul about 60 tons of water and coal supply with the train. 

Coal for northern roads, those near Lake Superior and Lake Michigan, is pur- 
chased each year about April first. Youghiogheny run-of-pile is used, which has 
run over a 3/4 inch screen at the mine. The run-of-pile contains about 25 per cent, 
of good screenings, formed by the handling at the lake docks. The price paid by 
the railroads has increased from $2.30 to $3.00 per ton, or 30 per cent., within the 



58 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

last seven years. The coal used by these northern railroads costs about $4.20 per 
ton dehvered on the locomotive tender. (Youghiogheny screened lump costing, $3.50 
at the dock, is sold by the coal companies to those manufacturing companies which 
are located at some distance from the railroad or which have poor facilities for burning 
coal. The screenings are burned by power plants which have stokers.) 

Coal for railroads near and just west of Chicago is generally the best Illinois 
screened lump. The screenings and duff are burned on stokers in railway and 
manufacturing plants in the larger cities within 500 miles of the Illinois mines. Coal 
for eastern roads comes from Pennsylvania and Indiana. Fuel oil is commonly used 
on locomotives in the Southwest and on the Pacific coast. Anthracite coal is used 
by some roads with economy. 

Statutes of states and municipal restrictions frequently compel the 
use by locomotives of an anthracite coal, coke, or fuel oil for switching 
and city service, and near flour mills, factories, forests, etc. 

The cost of hauling an ordinary 60-ton coal and water tender as dead 
weight, in a freight train, at 10.005 per ton-mile, for an ordinary 133-mile 
trip is $4; and in a passenger train varies from $8 to $11 per trip. 

The cost of locomotive fuel depends, therefore, upon the price, heat 
units, location of the road, cost of handling, etc., and on furnace economy. 

Compact boilers of the fire-tube type, with fire-box furnaces for hand 
firing, have been universally adopted. A steam pressure of 200 pounds 
is used, not so much for econoniy as for capacity. Steam pressures of 
150 pounds with superheat are now used to increase the economy, by 
reducing the radiation and condensation. The ratio of heating to grate 
surface depends on the grade of coal, and approximates 65 for ordinary 
bituminous coal. On a long run, the grates often burn several different 
kinds of coal, while the size of the grate, and the exhaust nozzle, are 
suited to but one grade of coal; and this is the cause of some complaints 
of firemen regarding poor steaming. The draft and the rate of combus- 
tion are proportional to the quantity and the pressure of the exhaust 
steam discharged thru the smoke stack. A draft at the smoke-box of 
about 3.7 inches by water gage is required to burn 100 pounds of bitu- 
minous coal per square foot of grate per hour. 

Center of gravity is high, for the track gage. The center of gravity 
is in the boiler, which is above the top of the drivers. The diameter of 
the driving wheels of ordinary passenger locomotives is 60 to 84 inches; 
of freight locomotives is 51 to 63 inches; of switch locomotives is 48 to 
51 inches, or less than one inch per mile per hour of maximum speed. 
The bearings on each axle of steam locomotives are between the wheels. 
The bearing spring centers are only 42 inches apart. 

Rigid driving-wheel bases of passenger engines are from 10 to 13 feet 
long; of common freight engines, 10 to 17 feet. Longer rigid wheel 
bases for 4 and 5 sets of drivers are most destructive to curved track. 

Simple engines and two cylinders are in general use. Only 5 per 



CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 59 

cent, of all locomotives are compound, and these are used for special 
conditions. Two-cylinder compounds have increased the economy of 
fuel; but this type has its limitations in speed and power. In high- 
speed service, compounds are not economical, and are seldom used. 

Cylinder diameters are so proportioned that, at 80 per cent, cut-off 
and with a 25 per cent, coefficient of adhesion between the rails and the 
weight on the drivers, the steam pressure will slip the drivers. The 
length of the stroke is 26 to 34 inches, the longer stroke for heavy freight 
service, the 26-inch for passenger service. 

Cylinder diameters are designed for sufficient tractive power. Large 
cylinders, often compounded, are well separated, and there is a constant 
disturbance of the locomotive in a horizontal plane called '^ nosing" 
which is due to the alternate pressures and their lever arms. 

Designs of the steam locomotive require that the materials and the 
power production be w^orked to the highest safe limits. The character 
of the labor must be considered. Complication is not tolerated. Mechan- 
ical stokers, coal crushers, feed-water heaters, superheaters, fire-brick 
arches, water-tube boilers, and economizers, which are desirable, are not 
used on ordinary locomotives, because economy of space and simplicity 
are essential. Quickness of repairs on the road is important. Expenses 
of maintenance and repairs at shop must be a minimum. 

Steam locomotive service cannot be continuous. Its design requires 
time for blowing down, cooling off, and washing out the boilers, cleaning 
of tubes, adjusting gear of machinery, filling the boilers and the coal 
and water tender, and waiting for fresh fires. 

Stationary engine practice cannot be used, as conditions of operation 
are essentially different. In the locomotive engine, steam passages 
cannot be short; piston and port clearance volumes' cannot be small, and 
compression cannot be used to best advantage because, to a great extent, 
the exhaust nozzle and the draft required govern the back pressure. 

Steam turbines, which are now the motive power used for electric 
railroads, have characteristics which are widely different from engines. 
The use of poppet valves avoids loss of pressure, superheat prevents con- 
densation on the cylindrical walls, and a high vacuum is utilized to con- 
vert the maximum number of heat units into work. 

Weight is prescribed, in the design, by the length of the connected 
wheel base allowed on curves; by a weight of 20 to 28 tons per axle to be 
borne by the rails; and by a weight of 3 tons per linear foot of track. 

Weight efficiency, as shown by the table on ''Proportions of Modern 
Steam Locomotives," is from 7 to 10 h. p. per ton. Weight efficiency is 
particularly low on large steam locomotives, because high speeds are not 
possible with complicated heavy reciprocating parts. Mallet designs 
with four cylinders and separated trucks distribute the weight. 



60 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Capacity is limited by design, as is outlined below: 

Driving wheels are first loaded to the greatest allowable or safe weight 
the rails will bear — about 90 tons for 30-foot, 90-pound rails, or about 
50,000 pounds per axle, when the track is reinforced. The number of 
drivers is generally limited to 4 pairs in freight and 3 pairs in passenger 
engines. Rigid driving-wheel bases must be limited to 13 feet in pas- 
senger engines, and 17 feet in freight engines to avoid destructive thrusts 
and mounting of curves. Driving wheel diameter is such that the 
reciprocating machinery will not work at a higher speed than 600 to 
1300 feet per minute, depending upon the piston weight and diameter. 

The boiler is placed above and clear of the drivers; yet it is dangerous 
to let the center of gravity exceed a height of 8.0 feet, for the 4.71-foot 
wheel gage. The boiler is provided with enough heating surface, in its 
diameter and length, to supply the steam. The boiler must be planned 
without lengthening the wheel base beyond the permissible limits noted. 
About 150 Santa Fe special freight locomotives use 19.5-foot rigid wheel 
bases, with close-coupled drivers, but that limit exceeds good practice. 
Mallets are more flexible, and use 10- to 16-foot rigid wheel bases. 

Grates must have ample size to burn the coal. Fire-boxes must have 
ample length and depth, so that the flames will be kept from contact 
with the plates until some part of the combustion is completed. Good 
design of fire-boxes is exceedingly diflScult on account of the required 
support and shape, and the expansion and warping. The track gage 
is not wide enough for good proportions, especially where large boiler 
capacity is needed. 

Large steam locomotives are thus hard to design, and. are often 
unsatisfactory. The failures in such locomotives multiply as the 
size increases. The men operating the complicated moving boiler and 
engine plant are not sufficiently skilled, nor can they give the machinery 
sufficient attention. Repairs and renewals cannot be made in the usual 
way, with jacks, wedges, and chain blocks. 

"The time out of service and the repairs per 1000 ton-miles hauled are out of 
direct proportion to increased weight. Large broken castings become common. 
Leaky flues are troublesome. Its own extra dead weight, with coal and water tender, 
must be propelled. Two firemen become necessary. Condensed steam in the large 
cylinders of compounds decreases the efiiciency. Compression troubles and conden- 
sation demand numerous relief valves. Leaks surround the engine with clouds, 
which are annoying and dangerous. The large locomotive boiler is wrong in principle." 
Railway Age, April 3, 1903. 

" The men in charge of the railways in this country have struggled for nearly 
15 years with the greatest problem of our times, how to move a load whose weight 
increases from 10 to 15 per cent, a year with a locomotive whose power increases at 
about 2 1/2 per cent, a year. The limit of safe, speedy, and reasonable service with 
existing facilities has been reached." J. J. Hill to Kansas City Commercial Club, 
Nov., 1907. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 61 

Heating surface of locomotives for switching and local passenger 
service ordinarily varies from 1200 to 1500 square feet; for ordinary 
passenger and express service from 1500 to 2500; for heavy passenger 
and way-freight, from 2200 to 2500; for heaviest passenger and heavy 
freight, from 2500 to 3200; for steep grades, from 3200 to 3500; for 
mountain grade service, and as pushers, from 3500 to 8000 square feet. 

Total equivalent heating surface is based on the tube and plate heating surface, 
plus 11/2 times the superheating surface. 

The horse power of a steam locomotive, the grade of coal and the 
design being fixed, depends upon the boiler heating surface. 

The torque, or the tractive force at the rim of the drivers, or the 
drawbar pull plus the pull for the engine friction, expressed in pounds, 
is proportional to the product of the steam pressure of the boiler, in 
pounds per square inch, P; the ratio of mean-effective pressure to boiler 
pressure, Y; the cross-sectional area of one cylinder, in square inches, 
0.7854 X D^; and the length of piston stroke, in inches, L; divided by the 
diameter of the drivers, in inches, W. 

The running drawbar pull, or torque, for the locomotive and train is 

FxPXi)'X.7854xLx4 YxPxD'xL. 
= m pounds. 

The maximum drawbar pull, or tractive force, or torque, is 
YXPXD^XL/W, in pounds. The variable Y, at slowest speeds, is 
about .80 of the boiler pressure, and at highest speeds, is from .30 to 
'.20 of the boiler pressure. The reciprocating pressure from the several 
pistons furnishes a variable tractive effort. 

Reference: Carpenter: Railway Age Gazette, Jan. 28, 1910. 

The maximum drawbar pull, by design, is made equal to about 25 
per cent, of the weight on drivers, assuming good conditions, and sand. 
The draft gear of the cars in a train, in common practice, is limited in 
strength to about 45,000 pounds. Articulated Mallet compounds, which 
may exert 70,000 pounds drawbar pull as a maximum and 50,000 pounds 
at very slow speed, are generally used as pushers. 

The piston speed, in feet per minute, is simply 

M.P.H. X5280X2 L ,^ „ ,, ,, L 

Horse power, or rate of work, of steam locomotives is generally com- 
puted on the basis of 12 pounds of steam per hour per square foot of 
boiler heating surface, and 28 pounds of steam per indicated h. p. hr. 
Horse power = 0.43 X square feet of heating surface. Goss. 



62 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Horse power is always the product of the pull or push, in pounds, 
times the speed, in feet per minute, divided by 33,000. 

_Pull X F.P,M._Fu\\ X 5280 Pull X M.P.H. 
' *~ 33,000 ~ 33,000X60" 375 

Indicated horse power of two simple cylinders is the product of the 
mean effective steam pressure, Y times P, in pounds; area of one piston 
face, in square inches, D^XO.785; length of the stroke, in inches, L; 
strokes per revolution, 4; number of revolutions of the drivers per minute, 
divided by 33,000. 

r 7? p yi/f 

^.P. = rxPXi)'X0.785X — X 4X-^^ — '- (Do not reduce.) 

12 33,000 ^ 

OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF STEAM LOCOMOTIVES. 

Furnace conditions in locomotive boilers are such that combustion is 
not perfect. Hydrocarbons which are distilled from the coal by the 
furnace heat ignite, and the carbon in the flame combines with the oxygen 
and becomes an invisible gas, provided there is a fraction of a second in 
which combustion may be completed; but in a locomotive furnace the 
time is short, and the distance from the coal to the steel is short, and these 
carbon particles in the flame, with a temperature of about 2000° F., 
come in contact with the relatively cold fire-box plates and the tubes; 
and cooled carbon cannot unite with oxygen, but passes out of the 
stack as black smoke. 

Fire-brick arches over the furnace steady the furnace temperature, 
prevent flame contact with the steel, and improve the combustion of the 
gases; but they are seldom used, because they require water tubes which 
fill with mud, burst, and kill firemen; and the arches are in the way, 
interfering with flue repairs. Fire-brick arches are smoke preventers; 
they decrease the warping in the furnace, and reduce the tube failures. 

Lake Shore Railroad is almost alone among the railroads in having nearly all of 
its locomotives, including switch engines, fitted with fire-brick arches. Its success 
is largely due to the use of brick in small units, supported on arch tubes, these tubes 
being kept clean by a hydraulic tube cleaner. The Lake Shore Railroad has demon- 
strated beyond a doubt the advantages of these arches. The estimated saving in 
fuel per annum amounts to a half-million dollars, in addition to a large saving \\^hich 
is due to reduction in tube repairs. The life of the arch, in passenger engines, averages 
one month, in freight engines 11/2 months, and in switching engines 4 to 5 months. 
Consult: Ry. Age, March 4, 1910, p. 504; June 2, 1911, p. 1264; Sci. Ame., April 24, 1909. 

Smokeless operation of furnaces, by stokers or by hand firing, requires a some- 
what uniform load; yet on a locomotive the load is most variable. Mechanical 
stokers feed coal with regularity, but require much space and for ordinary locomotives 
are compHcated. With hand firing, the coal is carried and is thrown too far for 
efficient distribution; and air holes and chilled furnace gases are common. The 
smoke nuisance, caused by these furnace conditions in modern heavy service, is an 
uneconomical feature. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 63 

High rates of evaporation are required. The coal consumption with 
the maximum continued rate of serving runs up to 200 pounds of bitumi- 
nous coal per square foot of grate per hour; and the actual water then 
evaporated is about 4.5 pounds per pound of coal, while with economical 
rates of firing, the ratio is increased to 6.4 pounds, or 42 per cent. The 
economy decreases as the rate of work increases. 

The water evaporated per pound of best Illinois coal, with 12,000 
B. t. u., per square foot of grate surface per hour in modern steam loco- 
motives, is given below, in a table based on average results with feed 
water at about 60° F., evaporated into steam at 200 pounds pressure. 



COAL CONSUMPTION AND EVAPORATION RATIO. 



Rate of consumption. 


Coal per 

square ft. of 

grate per hour. 


Ratio of evaporation. 


Actual. 


From and at. 


Maximum rate 


200 lbs. 
160 


4.50 


5.46 


High rate 


4.85 5.90 


Ordinary rate 

Averasre rate . 


100 
80 
65 
60 


5.33 6.47 
6 . 00 7 . 28 


Economical rate 


6.40 7.77 


Central power-plants rate 


7.00 
to 8.00 


8.50 
to 10.00 



With high rates of evaporation, particularly with foaming waters, low 
water is carried in the boiler to prevent an excess of water and spray 
from reaching the cylinders. 

Heat radiation from about 500 square feet of the external boiler sur- 
face of a moving boiler, about one-third of which can be lagged with 
mineral wool, requires 60 pounds of coal per hour in the mildest weather. 
Much fuel is consumed while coasting and stopping, but particularly 
while waiting. Freight locomotive records, which have been averaged 
for several divisions, show that 30 per cent, of the time is spent in waiting. 
Cold weather increases the pounds of coal used per ton-mile, a large part 
of which may be accounted for by radiation. Condensation on the 
cylinder walls and piston rods also increases rapidly in winter. 

Stand-by losses require that each boiler, nearly full of hot water, be 
blown off daily, and heat is wasted. The tubes are then washed out and 
i cleaned. Firing-up requires 500 pounds of coal in small locomotives, 
800 in medium, and from 1,200 to 1,600 in the largest locomotives. An 
engine does not go into service when the boiler is up to full pressure, for 
the train dispatcher prefers to have many locomotives ready for service. 
AVhile waiting, the coal burned may equal the coal utilized for the run. 



64 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Weather ratings, or relative tonnage hauled by locomotives, vary. 
The table used by the Great Northern Railway follows: 

Temperature between 25° and 0° 100 per cent. 

Very frosty or wet; 25° to 5° above zero 90 per cent. 

5° above to 10° below zero 80 per cent. 

10° below and colder, and not windy 75 per cent. 

Capacity is decreased by the chilled furnace, radiation of heat/ con- 
densation of steam, increased friction, etc. See data by Henderson, 
page 82, on '^Pounds of Coal per 1000 Ton-miles." 

Operation of locomotive boilers and engines depends primarily upon 
the attendants. The complicated machinery may not get proper atten- 
tion from the engineman and fireman. They are occupied with the 
combustion of fuel, the production of mechanical power, the care of the 
reciprocating mechanism, and the heed which must, as a matter of safety, 
be given to the track and signals. Reliability of service takes precedence 
over both economy of operation and careful attention to machinery. A 
locomotive that cannot be operated successfully by an ordinary engine- 
man, is not adapted to common train service. 

Unbalanced forces from common drivers are large. The horizontal 
reciprocating forces, which vary from 6 to 10 tons per piston, and the 
weight of the rods, cross head, and wrist pin may be neutralized by a 
counterbalance. The centrifugal force, however, acting on the counter- 
weight, varies as the square of the speed, and produces a violent unbal- 
anced vertical force, which, when the speed is high, may cause the wheels 
to first deliver a terrific blow on the rails, followed by a tendency to lift 
from the rails at every revolution. The centrifugal forces at maximum 
speed must not exceed 80 per cent, of the weight on the rail, or the wheels 
will not be maintained solidly on the rail. The counter-balance in the 
drivers can be suited to but one speed. Track pounding necessarily 
results. 

Balanced locomotives are worthy of much consideration because of 
the decreased track maintenance, increased safety, and greater allowable 
rail pressure per wheel. Cranks in the middle of the driving axle are 
objectionable. Few balanced locomotives are used, because, with the 
limited space for the crank axle the design is difficult. See Walker, on 
Compensated Locomotives, Ry. Age, Aug. 14, 1908. 

American Locomotive Company has recently built many 100-ton Atlantic 
engines with four simple, or four compound cylinders, arranged on the balanced 
principle. The crank axle is the front driver axle. This type of engine has been 
selected by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railroad for high-speed passenger 
work, because it is easier on track and bridges. Atkinson, Topeka & Santa Fe uses 
171 balanced 4-cylinder compounds. See Ry. Age, Dec. 23, 1910; Jan. 7, 1911. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 65 

Track destruction of roadbed and bridges is not caused by the loads 
from the many heavy steel cars. It is caused largely by unbalanced 
forces of locomotives, combined with excessive weight, concentration of 
weight, rigid wheel bases, and nosing. Track pounding wastes power; 
it destroys special work; it produces broken rails. The terrific reaction 
and the vibration rack the engine frame as well as the roadbed. Broken 
driver axles and crank shafts frequently cause wrecks. Locomotive 
weight per horse power is excessive, and it is general^ concentrated. 
Engines with a long, rigid wheel base are hardest on curves; the oiled 
flanges of drivers wear rapidly, while flanges of car wheels wear slowly. 
Nosing of engines, caused by an alternating force of many tons from 
steam pressure on the piston, and the leverage from the widely spread 
cylinders, on each side of the locomotive, is also destructive, for it loosens 
the spikes, spreads the rails, and is a source of danger in transportation. 

Friction losses of steam locomotives are caused by the wear of heavy 
reciprocating pistons, rings, rods, cross heads, valve gear, and connecting 
links. The wear of valves and cylinders is excessive, both because of 
lack of lubrication and because of scaly and foaming water. 

"Even with a good means of supplying lubricant, there appears to be 
a high percentage of the power of a locomotive engine using high- 
pressure steam absorbed in overcoming internal resistance." Sinclair. 

" The internal friction of the simple locomotive cylinders is equivalent 
to 3.8 pounds mean-effective pressure." Goss. This is a large part of 
the total mean-effective steam pressure. Seven per cent, is allowed for 
the internal friction of compound locomotives, and more, when superheat 
is attempted. Friction in Mallet compounds, in practice, is such that a 
Mallet without steam will not, drift in going down a 1.2 per cent, grade, or 
the friction exceeds 24 pounds per ton. Great Northern Railway 252-ton 
Mallets, used in pushing service on the Cascade Division, will not drift 
down a steeper grade. 

The power required to propel the simple steam locomotive is large, 
because the weight, internal friction, and head-end resistance are 
excessive. Note the following: 

'^ Aspinwall found that the 10-wheeled locomotive with tender absorbed 
32 per cent, of the total power of the train. Mr. W. M. Smith has given the 
result of his experiments as about 36 per cent, of the total power; and 
Mr. Druit Halpin has found that the engine and tender on the Eastern 
Railway of France absorbed 57 per cent, of the total power developed; 
Dr. P. H. Dudley gave it as 55 per cent.; Mr. Barbier as 48 per cent. 
These figures appear much too high. .Probably 35 per cent, is a proper 
allowance for ordinary trains, the actual figures depending upon the speed, 
the wheel base, the unbalanced effort, the service, and the load behind 
the engine and its coal and water tender." Inst, of C. E., 1901, p. 197. 
5 



66 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



LABORATORY TEST ON FRICTION OF ATLANTIC TYPE LOCOMOTIVE 

Cylinders, 20^x26; drivers 80-inch; weight on drivers 55 tons; heating surface 
2320 sq.ft. Test by Pennsylvania Railroad, 1910. 



Rev. 


Piston 


Miles 


Drawbar 


Cyl- 


Draw- 


Loss in 


Steam 


per 


speed 


per 


pull 


inder 


bar 


friction 


per 


min. 


f.p.m. 


hour. 


pounds. 


h.p. 


h.p. 


h.p. 


i.h.p.h. 











22,000 
16,768 













80 


346 


19.0 


940 


850 


90 


32.3 


120 


520 


28.5 


12,384 


1075 


940 


135 


28.0 


160 


694 


38.0 


9,602 


1150 


975 


175 


26.3 


200 


866 


47.6 


7,894 


1220 


1000 


220 


24.9 


240 


1040 


57.0 


6,428 


1240 


975 


265 


24.4 


280 


1213 


66.5 


5,325 


1250 


945 


305 


24.0 



Machine friction, with oil lubrication of driver axle bearings, was fairly uniform, 
and was equal to about 1687 pounds drawbar pull. 



ROAD TEST ON FRICTION OF PACIFIC TYPE LOCOMOTIVE. 

Cylinders, 22x28; drivers, 79-inch; weight on drivers, 80 tons; rigid driver- 
wheel base, 17 feet. Test by New York Central Railroad, 1909. 

Friction of mechanism and head air resistance of a Pacific type locomotive on 
the "Twentieth Century Limited" was tested with the following results: 

A 5-car, 315-ton train, at 70 m. p. h. required 3617 pounds tractive effort or 
11.5 pounds per ton for the cars, and 4551 pounds or 22.7 pounds per ton for the 
200-ton, 22x28 locomotive. 

An 8-car, 505-ton train at 62 m. p, h. required 4950 pounds or 9 . 8 pounds per ton 
for the cars, and 4055 pounds or 20.3 pounds per ton for the locomotive. 

A 9-car, 564-ton train at 60 m. p. h. required 5335 pounds or 9.5 pounds per ton 
for the cars and 3959 pounds or 19.8 pounds per ton for the locomotive; in other 
words, about twice as much per ton for the locomotive as for the cars. 

Pacific type locomotives on New York Central '' Twentieth Century Limited" 
trains in 1911 show the following: 

Boiler combustion chamber 4 feet long; heating surface, tubes and fire-box, 2915 
square feet, superheating tubes 493 square feet, total equivalent heating surface 
3655 square feet. Center of boiler above the rails, 9 feet, 9 inches. Driving-wheel 
base, 14 feet. Cylinders, simple, 22x28. Drivers, 79 inches. 

Boiler pressure 205 pounds, dry pipe pressure 185 pounds, steam chest pressure 
170 pounds, drop in pressure thru superheater 15 pounds, superheat 185° F. 

Weight of locomotive 212 tons, of engine 131 tons, on drivers 85 tons. Trailing 
load 7 steel Pullman cars, 443 tons; weight of locomotive, 32 per cent, of total 
weight; speed on level, 60 miles per hour. Ry. Age, March 31, 1911, pp. 785 to 795. 

Speed of trains is limited by the heating surface of the boiler. The 
power developed by the cylinders is restricted, because the rate of steam 



CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 67 

generation is fixed. The tractive effort cannot be maintained as the 
speed increases. The mechanical power developed is a minimum on 
the heavy grades, because of the low cylinder efficiency with half cut- 
offs; while it is at a maximum on the level, or for light loads, and at high 
speed, as is explained later. A constant rate of steam being available, 
speed is to be increased only when the drawbar pull is decreased. 

About 60 m. p. h. is the limit with a Pacific type locomotive, with 
tender, weighing 200 tons, and a train of 6 modern 55-ton steel coaches. 

American Railway Engineering Association constants for resistance of a steam 
locomotive with 125 square feet of cross- section, at 60 m. p. h., show: 

Head end or air resistance R = .002V^A, or 900 pounds. 

Internal friction between cylinder and drivers, R = 18.7 T -f SOX or 1830 
pounds. 

Engine and tender truck resistance is R = 2.6 TT + 20 XX, or 720 pounds. 

Total resistance of locomotive at 60 m. p. h. is 3450 pounds; or 550 h. p. is re- 
quired for the minimum friction of the locomotive. It increases greatly in winter. 

The tractive resistance of six 55-ton coaches at 10 pounds per ton is 3300 pounds; 
and the total resistance of the train is 6750 pounds. At 60 miles per hour, the train 
then requires 1080 h. p. On a very light gradient, 10.5 feet per mile, or 0.2 percent., 
the resistance due to the grade is 2120 pounds. The total h. p. is then 1420. 
This requires at least 1420/0.43 or 3300 square feet of heating surface. 

A locomotive with greater heating surface increases rapidly in weight of engine 
and of coal and water tender, and cannot propel a train at a higher speed. 

Limitations are also imposed at high speed by the valve and the valve gear which 
allow only a small volume of steam to get into the cylinder and cause a high back 
pressure in getting the steam out thru the exhaust nozzle. 

Reference: Ry. Age Gazette, Editorial and data, Dec. 24, 1909; Nov. 11, 1910. 

Mechanical strains in the boilers are interesting. Frames can hardly 
be made strong enough. The boiler, with all its bracing and binding, 
is not self-sustaining. With varying track alignment, it yields from its 
own weight and from the cylinder strains. Where the belly braces are 
riveted to the barrel of the boiler, the sheets around the edge of the 
rivets become grooved, because of continual motion. This chafing at 
the braces of boilers indicates the resistance offered to mechanical strains. 
Braces must be more or less yielding. Shocks, collisions, and ordinary 
bumps are harder on the boiler than on the engine and frames. 

Temperature strains in the furnace and boiler cause unequal expan- 
sion and contraction, which are of a serious nature. The steam pressui-e 
in the boiler varies daily from zero to a maximum. 

Locomotive repairs are of a pai'ticular nature. Mechanical vibi-ation 
at high speeds destroys the metal by fatigue and crystallization. Temper- 
ature strains are destructive. Fire-box repairs, caused by excessive 
temperature strains, always inci-ease i-adically in wintei'. Stay bolts are 
l)]'oken by the constant bending l)a('k\vard and foi'ward, from the diflei'- 



68 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

ence in expansion between the shell sheets and the fire-box. They are 
the most expensive and troublesome things about the boiler. Broken 
stay bolts, combined with low water and hot crowns, are the most pro- 
lific cause of explosions. 

Tube troubles are caused by temperature strains and by incrustation 
and corrosion from bad and varying waters. The scale formed is fre- 
quently of a hard, strong, porcelain nature, and lowers the boiler efficiency 
and capacity. The scale must be washed out after each 500-mile run. 
The use of soft water, during rainy seasons, or at other times, and the 
use of compounds loosen the scale, which may lodge and fill the space 
between the tubes, or on the lower tubes, to their disadvantage. Corro- 
sion from compounds and acidulated water reduce the strength of mate- 
rials and cause leaky tubes. Bad water west of the Mississippi River 
appreciably increases the cost of maintenance. 

General overhauling in the back shop is required of modern freight 
locomotives about every 60,000 miles, and of passenger locomotives 
about every 80,000 miles, during which 200 to 300 flues, about 0.12 inch 
thick, are removed, cleaned, and renewed, and the stay bolts renewed. 

The nature of these operating facts is of importance. 

"Repairs of large engines are usually very expensive. Their fire-box plates are 
so severely tried by the fierce combustion, and by expansion and contraction, as to 
require frequent renewal. Strenuous endeavors are made to secure the best material 
for this purpose, yet a sheet has been known to show more than 150 cracks after a 
short service. Also, the great weight of the reciprocating parts aggravates the 
destructive effect of a lack of balance in those parts, and consequently these monsters 
soon pound flat places in the tires of drivers, and must be sent to the shop to have 
those defects turned off." E. E. Woodman. 

" Running repairs of compound locomotives have cost nearly double as much as 
the simple engines per mile; also by spending so much time in the shop their annual 
mileage is very much less. This must not be thought to apply to all compounds, 
but as a general proposition it indicates' the value of simplicity in minimizing the 
cost of repairs." Henderson. 

"Few master mechanics are satisfied with the performance of large cylinder 
locomotives, the complaint being heard on all sides that they are not nearly so good 
for their inches as smaller engines." ''The steam ports are seldom proportionately 
as large. A serious proportion of the added power is lost by friction. A great por- 
tion of the steam is condensed by the increase of cylinder area. Rubbing surface 
in a cylinder induces a greater friction and causes much greater internal resistance 
than any other part of the engine, except the slide valve, consequently every effort 
should be made to reduce this surface." Sinclair. 

Opinions of many operators affirm these facts. 

The writer advocates large locomotives with compounding and super- 
heat. It is true that the large locomotives are unsatisfactory, that 
the large compounds, of some types, are hard to keep out of the shop, 
that superheat increases the valve and engine friction, and that the main- 



CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERNISTEAM LOCOMOTIVES 69 

tenance expense per mile is greater in proportion to the weight and 
hauling capacity than with smaller locomotives; but the transportation 
department is getting the freight hauled -at a lower cost per ton-mile. 

Condensation in the cylinders is evident because the hyperbolic curve 
of expansion is not followed. The refrigerating influence of the cylinder 
walls and of the exposed piston rod is large. Steam jacketing is imprac- 
ticable, and good lagging is only a partial preventive. The cylinder acts 
first as a condenser and then as a re-vaporizer of steam. 

The discovery that the great difference between the weight of water 
fed into the boiler and the weight of the steam accounted for by the indi- 
cator card, a difference which is due to the weight of the steam condensed, 
is accredited to Isherwood. 

'' Leading engineers, who have devoted much attention to investi- 
gating the extent of cylinder condensation, have shown that, in engines 
cutting off steam earlier than half-stroke, the loss from cylinder conden- 
sation is seldom less than 20 per cent, of all the steam entering the cylinders, 
and that it often rises to 50 per cent, and upward." Sinclair. 

Superheat reduces the cylinder condensation, and, while it requires 
additional coal, ultimately increases the economy of fuel. Superheat is 
advantageous on long, steady runs and on long, steep up-grades. The 
advantage is small for runs composed of up- and down-gradients, or on 
runs with frequent stops. Capacity may be gained to haul heavier loads 
on mountain grades. 

Superheat requires piston valves, to prevent excessive warping, fric- 
tion, and cutting, which, in simple engines, rapidly increase the leakage 
thru the valves and past the main pistons, and therefore increases the 
coal consumption. 

Reference: Ry. Age Gazette, Jan. 20, 1911, p. 110. 

Superheat on compound locomotives is advantageous; but it causes 
greater friction in the larger cylinders, and, in common operation, radically 
increases delays and maintenance expense. A gain is made with super- 
heat by lowering the steam pressure to decrease the radiation, but the 
weight and friction of heavy reciprocating pistons are thereby increased. 
Superheating is desirable, and with temperatures of 560 to 660° F., 
gains are being made in economy. 

Steam consumption per indicated h.p. hour for simple engines 
which are new or in good condition averages about 30 pounds; for simple 
engines in ordinary conditions it is about 36 pounds. When the locomo- 
tive furnace, boiler, and cylinder are chilled in cold weather and on over- 
loads or underloads, the steam consumption increases rapidly. In a 
pamphlet recently issued by the Baldwin Locomotive Works, Mr. W. P. 
Evans gives some figures relating to actual efficiency of modern locomo- 



70 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



tives, and calls attention to the improved economy of 4-cylindei' com- 
pound locomotives. 

"The weight of steam per h.p. hour, for the single-expansion engine, 
is 34.12 pounds, and for the balanced compound, 29.2 pounds, represent- 
ing a saving of 17 per cent. The other important improvement in loco- 
motives is superheating, which is claimed to have saved, in freight 
service, 26.7 per cent., and in passenger service, 22.8 per cent., according 
to a Canadian Pacific Railway test." 

St. Louis Exposition tests of 1906, in a building, showed better 
results; and, for slow-speed service, a gain was shown by compounding. 

An average consumption of about 10 pounds of steam per h.p. hour is 
obtained with steam turbines. 

Economy of coal cannot be attained in locomotive practice. The 
ordinary use of coal shows an enormous waste. The U. S. Geological 
Survey, thru its technologic branch, has conducted many tests on loco- 
motives to determine how the waste in operation could be avoided. 
Prof. W. F. M. Goss reported, November, 1909, in Bulletin 402, that 20 
per cent, of the total coal production of the country, costing the railroads 
$170,500,000 per year, was used by 51,000 steam locomotives. The 
following statistics are taken from the government report: 

COAL WASTE BY LOCOMOTIVES. 



Coal. 



Tons. 



I P.C. 



The locomotive coal used in 1906 was 

Lost through heat in gases from the stacks 

Lost through cinders and sparks 

Lost through radiation and leakage 

Lost through unconsumed coal in ashes 

Lost through incomplete combustion of gases 

Used in starting fires, keeping hot, standing at sidings 

Total losses and waste 

Used for hauling trains 



90,000,000 


100.0 


10,080,000 


11.2 


8,640,000 


9.6 


5,040,000 


5.6 


2,880,000 


3.2 


720,000 


.8 


18,000,000 


20.0 


45,360,000 


50.4 


44,640,000 


49.6 



Professor Goss thus shows that one-half of the coal is wasted. He 
suggests small improvements, such as increased grate area, brick arches, 
greater care in selecting fuel, less loss of fuel by dropping thru grates, and 
more skilled firing. 

'^Locomotive boilers are handicapped by the requirements that the 
boiler and all its appurtenances must come within rigidly defined limits 
of space, and by the fact that they are forced to work at very high rates 
of power." 

"Future progress cannot be rapid or easy, and must be from a series 



CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERiN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 71 

of relatively small savings, which, if made by a large proportion of the 
locomotives of the country, would constitute an important factor in the 
conservatism of the nation's fuel supply." 

Load factor of steam locomotives is low, and as a direct result econ- 
omy of coal is low. Boilers have fairly good efficiency; but the engines have 
that economy which is usual with prime movers having small limits of 
expansion, large clearance and condensation, and an efficient load for 
25 to 30 per cent, of the total hours in service. 



SPEED-TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF STEAM LOCOMOTIVES. 

The speecl-torque characteristics of steam locomotives are seldom 
referred to in text-books on steam locomotives. The information herein 
presented was obtained at first hand from indicator diagrams, operating 
data, dynamometer records, reports on locomotive tests, and from master 
mechanics and superintendents of motive power of steam roads. The 
data represent averages, yet may be readily modified for local conditions. 





Fig. 22. — Study of Indicator Cards of Simple Steam Locomotives. 
Cards 1-8 were taken during the passenger locomotive test, noted below. The lower card, 116, is 
from an indicator card taken at one end of the cylinder during the first three revolutions while a 
2().x32 freight locomotive was starting. 



72 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



Characteristics are studied and compared by means of curves which 
show how speed, torque, and power vary with respect to each other. 
(The relation of time to speed, known as acceleration curves, ar-^ 
important in a study of suburban service, but relatively unimporta 
in main-line railroad work.) 

Speed-torque curves show the results obtained from the steam after 
it leaves the boiler, and they are of fundamental importance. 

Indicator diagrams furnish a record of the action of steam in the 
locomotive cylinder. Many of the features of the indicator diagram of 
the steam locomotive are due to the variable speed requirements, and 
the limitations of space between the rail gage lines and within the rigid 
wheel base. Economy of material, and maximum capacity within a 
given space, are essential. A complete and simple power equipment, 
suitable for hard and reliable service, is the first necessity. 

TEST OF A SIMPLE ENGINE. 

Locomotive weight, including a 50-ton tender, 130 tons. Cylinders, 20x26 
inches. Drivers, 80 inches. Heating surface, 3016 square feet. Load, a 450-ton 
all-coach passenger train. 



Card 


Boiler 


Cylinder 


pressure. 


Cut-off 


Train 


Piston 


Horse 


No. 


press. 


mean. 


per cent. 


inches. 


speed. 


speed. 


power. 


1 


195 
190 


182.3 
120.0 


93.5 
63.1 


21.00 
10.75 








2 


30 


546 


1256 


3 


195 


99.1 


50.8 


12.00 


40 


728 


1383 


4 


185 


76.3 


41.2 


11.25 


50 


910 


1331 


5 


185 


63.3 


34.3 


10.75 


60 


1092 


1325 


6 


170 


52.7 


31.0 


10.75 


65 


1183 


1195 


7 


180 


47.7 


26.5 


8.50 


70 


1274 


1165 


8 


175 


55.2 


31.2 


10.75 


70 


1274 


1338 



Ordinary indicator cards, as in the accompanying figures, show: 

Strokes are short, 24 to 32 inches, commonly 26 or 30. 

Piston speeds are high, 1000 to 1400 feet per minute. Large com- 
pounds do not exceed 600, because the friction of heavy pistons at 
higher piston speed is excessive. The revolutions per minute depend 
upon the diameter of the drivers. 

Initial steam pressure is 200 pounds per square inch, to obtain capacity. 
With superheat, a lower pressure is used. 

Loss of pressure occurs between the boiler and the steam chest, vary- 
ing from 1 per cent, in starting to- 7 per cent, at a piston speed of 700 
feet, and to 13 per cent, at 1400 feet per minute. The abnormal loss in 
pressure is caused by wire-drawing, thru the ports and passages. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 73 

Indefinite points of cut-off, of release, and of compression are noted. 
These are due to inertia of the steam, loss of pressure between the steam 
'■'^st and the cylinder, and friction thru the valves. 

Clearance between the piston and the valve seat is from 8 to 10 per 
cent, of the volume of the stroke. Large clearance is necessary in design 
to prevent damage by water; but is accompanied by a material reduction 
in efficiency. 

Back pressure is high, because of the restricted exhaust and the 
necessity of producing a draft for the fire; and it requires 10 to 15 per 
cent, of the initial pressure. Back pressure limits the mean effective 
steam pressure and the speed of the locomotive. 

Expansion of steam indicates an uneconomical utilization of steam 
by the engines. The number of expansions is seldom over four. 

Walschaert, Allen, Wilson, and other, valves and gearing show that 
designers recognize the importance of giving the steam ample opportunity 
for rapidly entering and leaving the cylinders, the object in view being 
to raise the steam line and lower the exhaust or back pressure line. The 
valve openings produced by the best mechanism are unsatisfactory. 
The small port openings limit the steam at high speed and early cut-offs. 
Compression begins near the middle of the return stroke, not as in Corliss 
engines. 

" Some good, practical valve motions have been produced embodying 
the idea of giving a prompt opening and closure of the steam ports, and 
permitting steam to be put in the cylinders of locomotives more quickly; 
but there is no evidence that they effect any economy in the use of steam." 
Sinclair. 

References : Report of American Railway Master Mechanics' Association, June, 
1907; Walschaert Valve Gear, Railway Age Gazette, Sept. 2, 1910. 

Mean efifective pressure decreases as the speed increases. — Note that: 

At low speed there is the largest card, the greatest mean-effective 
pressure, and a high back pressure. 

Increased speed, with 3/4 to 1/2 cut-off, is accompanied by a decrease 
in the initial pressure received at the cylinder, an increase in back pressure, 
and a reduction in the mean effective pressure as the steam expands. 
The reduced mean effective pressure limits the capacity of the locomotive 
for high-speed passenger service. 

High-speed cards show a comparatively small area, and a further 
reduction in mean effective pressure. 

When the piston speed exceeds 1000 feet per minute, the valve gear 
will not admit steam fast enough. The loss in pressure because of wire- 
drawing and condensation decreases the mean effective pressure faster 
than the mechanical gain due to the increase in piston speed. 



74 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

A definite relation exists between the mean effective steam pressure 
and the piston speed, as a collection and tabulation of results from a great 
number of indicator cards show. The general relation is exhibited in the 
accompanying curve. The data for the curve were first obtained from 
F. J. Cole, Mechanical Engineer of the American Locomotive Company's 
Engineering Dept., Schenectady, N. Y. Mr. Cole states: '^This curve, 
showing the relation between the mean effective pressure and the piston 
speed, was plotted on a large scale, from many hundred indicator diagrams, 
and represents an average result, taken from different types of locomotives 
under various conditions of service. The data are for a wide-open 
throttle, when presumably the cut-off was adjusted so that the locomotive 




100 300 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1:300 1300 1400 1500 
Piston Speed Feet per Minute, M 

Fig. 23. — Characteristic Curves of a Simple Steam Locomotive. 

was doing the best work at that speed. The curve represents the average 
best maximum mean effective pressure for different piston speeds under 
ordinary conditions, with simple locomotives. There are, of course, 
limitations due to the capacity of the boiler, size of pipes, kind of valve . 
gear, and the builds of different locomotive companies." | 

The curve has been carefully checked by data from indicator cards 
taken from Baldwin and Schenectady locomotives with 26-inch strokes 
for passenger, and 28-, 30-, and 32-inch strokes, for freight locomotives. 

The relation exists between the mean effective pressure and the 
piston speed, and there is no general relation between mean effective 
steam pressure and revolutions per minute, independent of the piston 
stroke, as some early writers have thought. 

The locomotive has one point of cut-off for a given speed, at which point the 
engine will develop its greatest power. As the piston speed increases, the length of 



CPIARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 75 

the cut-off is decreased, and the expansion curve prolonged, so that, at the time of 
release, the pressure will be sufficiently reduced to allow the exhaust to take place 
without undue back pressure. If the cut-ofT is too great for the piston speed, the 
mean effective pressure will be decreased by port friction and back pressure. 

Work done in the cylinders, expressed in h. p., is the product of the 
mean effective pressure, times the area of one cylinder, times the 
length of the stroke in feet, times the number of strokes of both cylin- 
ders per minute, divided by 33,000 foot-pounds per minute. 

The product of the ordinates of the mean effective steam pressure 
curve, times those of the train speed curve, gives the power curve, 
shown in the accompanj'ing curve. All data are in per cent., at the 
varying piston speeds. Only a small increase in power is obtainable 
after the piston speed exceeds 600 feet per minute. 

The work done, or the h. p., is quite constant for all normal running 
speeds. The load diagram of steam locomotives, when plotted on a 
time base, is therefore nearly a horizontal line. 

COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 

Compound locomotives must be noted briefly. Only 5 per cent, of 
all locomotives are compounds, and these are generally used on heavy 
grades. Four-cylinder Baldwin compounds, and two-cylinder American 
cross-compounds are in use. They are started as simple engines. 

The general relation of mean effective pressure to piston speed, which 
was explained, holds also for compounds. 

The compound engine results from a desire to economize in fuel, by 
reducing the condensation and by decreasing the extremes of temperature 
in each of the two cylinders used in a combination. 

D. K. Clark, the eminent engineer, showed 60 years ago, regarding 
operation of simple engines, that ^'expansive working was expensive 
working," because the cylinder acted alternately as a condenser and 
a revaporizer. It is also evident that, when live steam is condensed 
into spray by the refrigerating influence of relatively cold cylinders 
and rods, the steam loses its power to do mechanical work. 

Compound locomotives ought to be in general use in freight service, 
to reduce the cost per ton-mile hauled. Economy of steam and saving 
in fuel are fundamentally necessary in transportation. 

The real objections to compounds are the added weight, the compli- 
cated machinery, the expensive maintenance; and the delays, when 
repairs must be made on the road, subject the improved equipment to 
criticism by the operating department. Another point is that the engine- 
man and fireman are already loaded with work, forcing the furnace, pro- 
ducing steam, and watching the track or signals in order to move the 
train with safety. Furthermore, most of them are not sufficiently good 



76 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

mechanics to operate the improved machinery, and they are unfriendly 
to a type of locomotive which increases their burdens. 

Economy of compounds, when new, is about 15 per cent, better than 
that of simple engines of the same weight, age, and service. In time 
the blows and the leaking of steam past the various packing rings of the 
valves and pistons, which are difficult to repair, reduce the economy of 
compounds. -• In all cases, the exhaust pressure of about 5 pounds must 
be maintained to cause a draft thru the fire. 

Lack of economy on the down-hill trip offsets the better economy on 
the up-grade; and a uniform stretch has been found most advantageous. 

Compound locomotives, with two cylinders, on the Chicago, Burling- 
ton & Quincy Railroad, when tested and compared with simple engines, 
were found to be 15 per cent, more economical in heavy freight service, 
and about 30 per cent, less economical in passenger service. 

MALLET LOCOMOTIVES. 

Mallet, a French engineer, in 1876, furnished a practical design for a 
compound articulated locomotive with two sets of engines under one 
boiler. The Pennsylvania Railroad imported one, in 1889, built from 
designs of F. W. Webb, of the London and Northwestern Railway. 

American Locomotive Company, in 1904, built for the Baltimore 
& Ohio Railroad the first one constructed in America. 

About 100 Mallets were built prior to 1909, 162 in 1909, and 249 in 
1910, or 5 per cent, of all locomotives built in these years. 

Mallet compounds are now the largest steam locomotives. The 
articulated plan reduces the rigid wheel base and the individual weights 
of the moving and wearing parts, and distributes the weight on the 
roadbed. Mallet locomotives are frequently used in pushing service for 
freight on mountain grades. Lighter Mallets are used for road service on 
1 per cent, grades. 

The high-pressure cylinder on each side is located near the middle, 
and the low-pressure cylinder at the front end, of the locomotive. A 
cylinder ratio of about 2 . 4 is used. The speed of the heavy piston must 
be kept very low. The two trucks which support the boiler and cylinders 
are independent. Their drivers are independent; yet uniformity of 
tractive effort is obtained by the compensation of the steam pressures in 
the compound cylinders; if slipping occurs, even while operating simple, 
in starting, the low-pressure cylinder at once receives less mean effective 
steam pressure, and further slipping is prevented. The maximum tons 
per axle are 24 to 28. Enormous tractive efforts result from the com- 
bination of two sets of engines. Great heating surface is obtained in 
the long boiler. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 77 

High speed is not practical with Mallet compound locomotives as 
now designed, because there is a heavy leading truck swiveled on a pin 
behind its rear axle and carrying its load on a transverse shoe along which 
the load must be shifted for considerable distance to permit the radial 
movement of the truck; and this cannot be accomplished with safety at 
high speed or on rough or crooked track at medium speeds. Mainte- 
nance of the steam piping, heavy pistons, and of the mechanism in- 
creases most rapidly as the speed increases. 



MALLET ARTICULATED COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE DATA. 



Name of 
railroad. 



Wheels. 



No. 



Cylinders, 



Dri- 


Wt. on 


Wt. of 


Total 


Heating 


vers. 


drivers. 


engine. 


weight. 


surface. 


57" 


334,000 


334,000 


480,000 


5585 


56 


454,000 


454,000 






57 


412,350 


462,500 


660,000 


7839 


73 


268,000 


3.76,500 


610,000 


4756 


63 


412,500 


462,500 


700,000 


6621 


57 


394,000 


426,500 


610,000 


6393 


57 


297,500 


339,000 


510,000 


3906 


55 


350,000 




518,000 


5651 


55 


316,000 


355,000 


504,000 


5658 


55 


263,350 


302,650 


460,000 


3906 


55 


360,000 


378,000 


526,000 


5040 


55 


313,500 


350,000 


500,000 


5608 


55 


256,000 


302,000 




5586 


57 


404,000 


438,000 




6393 


51 


409,000 


409,000 




3433 


56 


360,000 


360,000 


520,000 


4905 


56 


360,000 


390,000 


540,000 


5894 


64 


304,500 


361,600 


515 900 


5094 



Rigid 
base. 



Baltimore.%0. 
Santa Fe 



Southern 
Pacific 



Great North- 
em. 



Northern 
Pacific. 

Erie R. R. . . 
Norfolk & 
Western. 
C. B. & Q. 



0-6-6-0 


1 


0-8-8-0 


10 


2-8-8-2 


4 


4-4-6-2 


4 


2-8-8-2 


30 


2-8-8-2 


18 


2-6-6-2 


12 


2-6-6-2 


25 


2-6-6-2 


25 


2-6-6-2 


45 


2-6-8-0 


10 


2-6-6-2 


16 


2-6-6-2 


6 


2-8-8-2 


5 


0-8-8-0 


3 


0-8-8-0 


5 


2-8-8-2 


5 


2-6-6-2 


10 



20 
26 
26 
24 
26 
26 



&32x32 
&41x32 
&38x32 
&38x28 
•&38x34 
&40x30 
21.5&33x30 
23 &35x32 
-21.5&33x32 
20 &31x30 
23 &35x32 
21.5&33x32 
20 &31x30 
26 &40x30 
25 &39x28 
24.5&39x30 
24.5&39x30 

23 &35x32 



lO'-O' 

15-0 
12-8 
16-6 
15-0 
10-0 

10-0 
9-10 
15-0 
10-0 



14-3 
15-6 



11- 



Reference: Railway Age Gazette, April 21, 1911, p. 954. 

Baltimore & Ohio Railroad used the first Mallet articulated locomotive 
built in America for pushing and hauling freight trains on the Connells- 
ville Division. 

Engine weight, 167 tons, is distributed over twelve 57-inch drivers, a 30-foot 6-inch 
wheel base, and a 10-foot rigid wheel base, resulting in minimum wear and tear on 
the roadway. Excessive weights are not concentrated on the wheel base. Ceuter 
of gravity is high, so that the vibration of the locomotive, due to variations in surface 
alignment elevation, and curvature of track can be absorbed by the weight suspended 
over the driver springs. Sets of drivers do not slip at the same time. Operating 
and maintenance expense is 24 cents per mile. Muhlfeld, to New York R. R. Club, 
Feb., 1906; S. R. J., Feb. 24, 1906. 

Great Northern Railway Mallet compound locomotives have a heating surface 
of 5658 square feet and a grate suilace of 78 square feet. The v/eight, on 12 drivers, 
is 316,000 pounds; weight of engine, 355,000 pounds; weight of loaded tender, 149,000 
pounds; total weight, 504,000 pounds. Length is 73 feet. Boiler tubes are 2.25 
inches by 21.0 feet long. Two firemen are required. Steam pressure is 200 pounds. 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



The cylinders on each side are 2L5 inches and 33 inches, by 32-inch stroke. About 
100 Mallets are used. 

These locomotives were designed to push or pull an 800-ton train at 8.5 to 9 
miles per hour up a 2.2 per cent, grade and around 10-degree curves. 

Coal consumption, with 11,000 B. t. u. coal, is given as 4.5 pounds per h. p. 
hr.; to be compared with 5.5 for 2-cylinder compounds, and 6.33 for simple engines. 
As much coal maybe used while standing as during the run. When the Mallet runs 
above or below the most economical speed, 11 m. p. h., the efficiency drops rapidly. 

Horse power at the drawbar, at 9 m. p. h., is only 1260, or 5 h.p. per ton. 

GREAT NORTHERN MALLET LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 
CHARACTERISTICS. 



Miles per 


Drawbar 


Per cent. 


Piston 


Drawbar 


Traihng 


hour. 


pull. 


of pull. 


speed. 


h.p. 


tons. 





55,000 


85.0 








880 


5 


54,000 


84.0 


169 


700 


880 


9 


52,500 


81.7 


304 


1260 


825 


10 


50,500 


77.8 


338 


1345 


815 


15 


44,500 


69.0 


507 


1780 


725 


20 


38,000 


59.0 


676 


2050 


570 


25 


30,500 


47.5 


845 


2040 


420 


30 


22,500 


35.0 


1014 


1800 


270 


35 


12,500 


19.3 


1183 


1170 


100 


37 








1J50 









Trailing tons include a 74-ton tender. Operation is at best efficiency 
on 2.2 per cent, grades, at 11 m. p. h., hauling 800-ton trailing load; but 
in service the speed is 9 to 7 m. p. h., and 900- to 1,000-ton trains are hauled. 
Toltz: New York Railroad Club, Dec, 1907. 

Operation above 16 m. p. h. is dangerous. Increase of speed for long 
runs is obtained by reducing the trailing load. 

Note the rapid decrease in drawbar pull as the speed increases. 

The light load carried greatly increases the number of trains run. If 
the number of train-miles could be reduced one-half, by using more 
powerful engines, the net saving, with 6 trains per day per 100-mile 
division, of only 20 cents per train-mile, would be over 130,000 per year. 



Santa Fe Mallets, built by Baldwin, are used to haul passenger trains, at express 
speed, over mountain grades of Southern California and Nevada. Boiler tubes, 294; 
length, 19 feet; diameter, 2.5 inches. Drivers are 73 inches. Engine wheel base is 
52 feet. Feed water heater raises water temperature to 300 degrees. Superheater 
and reheater are used. Length of locomotive 105 feet. Fuel oil is burned. 

Southern Pacific Mallet type locomotives are used on the Sacramento 140 -mile 
division, over the Sierra Nevada Mountains. There 's a 1.47 per cent, average grade 
for 83 miles, and a 2.4 per cent, ruling grade. Two Mal'ets, or four consolidation 
engines are used to haul a 2,000- to 2400-ton trailing load. The running speed is ordi- 
narily 10 to 7 miles per hour. Fuel consumption is one gallon of oil per h. p. hour. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 79 

AVheel base; driving, 39 feet 4 inches, locomotive, 56 feet 7 inches, total, 83 feet 
6 inches. AVeight of engine, 426,000; on 56.5-inch drivers, 394,000; total 600,000. 
The cab is on the front end of Southern Pacific locomotives. 







^i^-~*- 


-,-..i^ 


J 

m 


laoi 


'"""«■■ "' „„;'. 








:3^^^K 


^s. . ,^ 



Fig. 24. — Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe. Mallet Articulated Locomotive. 

C^-linders 24 and 38 by 28; heating surface 4756 square feet; weight 610,000 pounds, with 12,000 

gallons of water and 4000 gallons of oil. 




Fig. 25. — Southern Pacific Mallet Articulated Locomotiv 



Cylinders, 26 and 40 inches by 30 inches. Locomotives are equipped with water 
heaters and superheaters. Boiler heating surface, 5173 square feet. Steam pres- 
sure, 200 pounds. The cut-offs at 12 miles per hour are 79 per cent, of full stroke, 

SOUTHERN PACIFIC MALLET LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING 
CHARACTERISTICS. 



Miles ]Der 


Tractive 


Piston 


Indicated 


I.h.p. 


hour. 


power. 


s])eed. 


h.p. 


per cent. 





90,000 











5 


86,055 


147.5 


1147 


45.1 


10 


77,136 


297 


2057 


82.3 


15 


59,349 


445.5 


2373 


94.9 


18 


51,796 


535 


2486 


99 . 4 


20 


42,090 


594 


2245 


89.8 



80 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



Comparative tests of simple and Mallet locomotives of the consolida- 
tion type, on the Southern Pacific grade over the Sierra Nevada Moun- 
tains, were published in part in Railway Age Gazette, January 14, 1910, 
p. 81. The deductions from these service tests, comparing simple engine 
No. 2564 with Mallet compound No. 4001, are that on the 1.47 per cent, 
up-grade run, the Mallet was more economical than its competitor. 













^ 




-^ 


=^ 




—1400—1 
I.H.P. 










/ 


I.H 


.R 








innn 








/ 






SIMPLE 

CONSOLIDATION 

2564 










/ 


/ 








Tractive 
Effort 




/L 




















40000 
20000 


/ 






■ 


■ 




T 










/ 


5 




LO 


15 


2 





25 




SmlRs' 




1 


30 3 


X) 3( 


)0 4 


K) 500_G 


X) 7 


)0 8C 


9 


DOPJP.M 










/ 


/lp 


[.R 








I.H.R 










/ 












CH\l\C\ 








/ 






MA 


-LET 
GROUND 
sISOLIDATION 
1 


-18( 










/ 






cor 

400 








/ 
















- 16(;u 






/ 


















JU 


Tractive 

Effort 

80000 

60000 

40000 




/ 






















r 


■^^ 


















/ 






\ 


.T 














/ 








\ 


\. 












/ 








' 




'^'^ 












L 


5 


1 


) 


15 


182 




M.] 


■i 




3 

\ 1 



100 200 300 400 500 600 700 

Piston Speed in Feet per Minute 



Fig. 26. — -Operating Characteristics op Simple and Mallet Compound Locomotives. 

Southern Pacific Co. 



Tractive effort is assumed at 29.4, plus 6.6, or 36 pounds per ton. 
Mechanical h. p. equals tonnage times tractive effort per ton, times 
speed in miles per hour, divided by 375. 

Note the low speed, which increases the trainmen's wages; the 
light train, with a locomotive weighing 30 per cent, of the train 
weight; the maximum h. p., and the friction. The results of tests 
are discouraging. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 81 
SOUTHERN PACIFIC MALLET LOCOMOTIVE TESTS. 



Locomotive. 




Simple. 



Number 

Pounds of steam evaporated 

Pounds of steam evaporated f & a 212°. . . . 
Average speed up 1 .47% grade, m, p. h. . . 

Weight of train 

Weight of locomotive 

Total weight of train, tons 

Mechanical h. p. for the train 

Indicated h. p 

Loss between indicated and drawbar power 
Average number of hours, for 87-mile run. . 
Pounds of steam per drawbar h. p. hour. . . 
Pounds of steam per indicated h. p. hour. . . 



4,001 


2,564 


365,500 


197,183 


445,000 


237,500 


9.91 


13.42 


1,006 


478 


298 


164 


1,304 


642 


1,248 


833 


2,000 


1,150 


37.5% 


38.0% 


8.75 


6.47 


40.60 


44.20 


25.50 


35.00 



STEAM TURBINE LOCOMOTIVES. 

A turbine locomotive was built in 1909 by the North Bristol Loco- 
motive Company of Glasgow. It has an ordinary locomotive boiler 
with a superheater. The steam which is generated is fed to a 3,000 r. p. m. 
impulse-type turbine. The latter is coupled to a direct-current, com- 
pound-wound, variable-voltage electric generator, which supplies current 
at from zero to 600 volts to 4 series-wound traction motors built on 
the driving axle of a double-truck locomotive. The exhaust steam from 
the turbine is condensed by an ejector condenser and the water so con- 
densed, and free from oil, is used over and over again. Forced draft 
from a fan is used for the furnace. The service is express passenger 
work on the main line. Railway Age Gazette, July 22, 1910. 

Another turbine locomotive, built in 1910 by a Milan firm, has two 
axles driven by a direct-action steam turbine. The blades are S-shaped 
and the motion is reversed by reversing the flow of steam. The drive 
is thru gearing, and speed changes are effected by means of a crown 
wheel which carries several rows of teeth. The economy at the rated 
load is 35 pounds of steam per h, p. hour. 

The construction of these turbine locomotives shows clearly the 
desire of steam locomotive builders to avoid the reciprocating motion, 
to decrease the cylinder condensation and the relative consumption of 
fuel and water, and to produce more efficient results at the drawbar. 
The complication of a complete generating plant on each moving loco- 
motive and the lack in capacity make it impractical. 
6 



82 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



COST OF OPERATION OF STEAM LOCOMOTIVES. 
Operating expenses of steam locomotives exceed one-third of the total 
operating expenses of steam railroad transportation. In general, the total 
cost of operation, from Interstate Commerce Reports, includes: 



Maintenance of ways and structures 

Maintenance of all equipment 

of which the maintenance of locomotives is 11% 

Conducting transportation, 

of which engine and round house wages are 11% 

of which fuel for locomotives alone is an added . . . 12% 
Totals 34% 



22% 
22% 

56% 



100% 



Where the traffic is heavy, on mountain grades, or where compound 
locomotives are used, the items of repairs and renewals of locomotives 
greatly exceed the average. Cost of coal is frequently high, and fuel 
expense greatly exceeds 12 per cent. Where water is bad, both fuel 
and repairs greatly exceed the above averages. 

Expenses vary with the work done; up-hill or level, slow or time 
freight, express or ordinary passenger trains; and with the weather, 
management, etc. These elements change the performance and mainte- 
nance cost of steam locomotives on the same railroad. General data are 
valuable to show the averages, but managers and engineers find that, in 
practice, actual results are needed for each branch or division studied 

The general data available are presented. 

POUNDS OF COAL BURNED PER 1000 TON-MILE. 



Name of railroad. 



New York, New Haven 
& Hartford (New York 
Division). 

Pennsylvania R. R 

Chicago & Northwestern. 

Chicago & Northwestern. 

Chicago & Northwestern . 

Delaware & Hudson . . . . 

Rock Island 

Great Northern 

Gr,eat Northern 

Great Northern 

Great Northern 

Norfolk & Western 

Chicago & Alton 

Northern Pacific 

Six western roads 



Ordinary sinijjle loco- 
motives. 



Kind of Service. 



Express — Local. . . 

Express 

Freight 

Ordinary freight . . 

Freight 

Freight 

Freight 

Freight pusher. . . . 
Fast passenger. . . . 
Mountain freight. 
Mountain freight. 

Level freight 

Freight— Mallet. . 
Freight — Mallet.. 

Freight 

Heavy passenger. . 
Heavy freight. . . . 
Freight 

Passenger on level 
Freight on level . . . 
Freight on grades. 



Joal per M. 


Train 


ton-miles. 


tons. 


335 


527 


194 


314 


169 


931 


1 60 


all 


255 to 280 




185 to 210 




226 




410 to 470 


1431 


238 to 287 


500 


380 


1050 


251 


1600 


130 to 94 


2000 


890 


810 


273 


1500 


•230 




160 to 206 


590 


131 to 162 


2050 


215 


1200 


235 


1200 


270 


1200 


250 


500 


150 


1500 


250 


1000 



Remarks f nd authority. 



Murray, A. I. E. E., Jan. 25, 

1907, p. 148. 
Year 1906. 

Good average on tests. 
In winter. Henderson. 
In summer. Henderson. 
2-year average. Henderson. 
Ry. Age, May 27, 1910. 
Ry. Age, Jan. 6, 1911. 
Consolidation. 
Mallet compounds. 
Illinois coal, Supt. M. P. 
1.35% grade. Pomeroy. 
Ry. Age, May 19, 1911. 
Ry. Age, June 16, 1911. 
Ry. Age, June 22, 1910. 
Ry. Age, June 22, 1910. 
October, 1909. 
November, 1909. 
December, 1909. 
Author. 
Author. 
Author. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 83 
POUNDS OF COAL BURNED PER I. H. P. HOUR ON TEST. 



Railroad. 



Service. 



Coal. 



Coal used, lbs. 



Authority. 



f Freight 

"Mountain \ Passenger and Ft. 

I [ Freight 

Mountain Freight 

Mountain Freight 



Ordinarv' 



New York, New 
Haven & Hart : 

Pennsylvania 

Electric. . . . • 

Ordinary' 



Suburban 

Passenger 

Freight 

Passenger Express 
Passenger Local. . . 

Freight 

Electric plants. . . . 
Turbine plant.5. . . . 



San Coulle. 
Montana. . . 
High-grade. 
Pittsburg . . 
Pittsburg . . 
Pittsburg . . 
Pittsburg . . 
Pittsburg . . 
Pittsburg . . 
Pittsburg . . 
Pittsburg. . 
Pittsburg . . 
Pittsburg . . 



12.3 to 14.0] 

10.6 
9.6to 11.2 
4 . to 8.0 
6.0 to 12.0 
6.5to 7.0 
3 . 8 to 4.0 
4.8 to 5.0 
4.06 to 4.37 
4 . 68 to 4 . 61 
4.35 to 4.71 
2.70 to 3.00 
2.00 to 2.20 



f PomeroJ^ 

A.I.E.E. 

November, 1909. 
Road tests. 
Road tests. 
On test. 
On test. 
On test. 
Murray. 

A.I.E.E., .Jan. 25, 1907. 
Ry. Age, June 21, 1910. 
Potter, 1905. 
Guarantee. 



Cost of coal burned per train-mile, from such data as are available, 
approximates that for all trains in Massachusetts, 17 cents. Cost of 
coal for Mallet compounds in mountain service reaches 57 cents. It 
varies with stops per mile, weight, speed of train, temperature, etc. 

Pounds of coal burned per locomotive-mile averages about 104 for 
passenger service, 208 for freight, 130 for mixed and non-revenue, 108 
for switching, and about 150 for all service. 

Cost of operation per ton-mile varies from 5 to 6 mils for ordinary 
freight service up to 17 mils for mountain-grade work. The cost varies 
with the character of service, grades, load, nature and amount of repairs, 
as well as the cost of labor, fuel, and supplies. 

Cost of maintenance and repairs per ton -mile is 2.0 to 3.5 mils 
for ordinary freight locomotives, up to 7.1 for Mallet compounds. 

Cost of maintenance and repairs per locomotive -mile for ordinary 
roads reporting to Railroad Commissions averages a little over 7 cents, 
but this excludes data for mountain divisions on which the cost of 
maintenance runs up as high as 57 cents. The road that has given 
efficiency methods the most thoro tryout, the Santa Fe, reported that 
the cost of repairs and renewals in 1910 was 10.75 cents. 

Cost of maintenance and repairs per locomotive -year for three years 
prior to 1909 averaged about $2200, while for 1909 the average, from 
the annual reports of 15 common roads, was about $2600. Roads in 
the mountains average higher than those in the central states. 



84 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



OPERATING EXPENSES FOR REPAIRS AND RENEWALS OF STEAM 
CARS AND LOCOMOTIVES. 



1 Name of railroad. 


Per passen- 
ger car-mile. 


Per freight 
car-mile. 


Per locomo- 
tive-mile. 


Per locomo- 
tive-year. 


Boston & Maine 


1.38^ 


.66^ 


6.15^ 
14.60 


$ 


Boston & Albany 




Delaware & Hudson 






2821 


New Haven 


1.35 

1.14 

1.48 

1.19 

1.37 

.98 

1.08 

1.28 

.89 

3.70 

.73 

.77 

.84 

.76 

.81 

.84 

1.08 

1.23 


.66 
.90 
.60 

1.07 
.89 
.79 
.79 
.76 
.52 

1.33 
.23 
.30 
.51 
.77 
.60 
.69 
.80 
.71 


7.93 

7.72 
6.76 
8.54 

10.05 
9.22 
8.98 

10.56 
8.82 

10.78 
8.47 
8.37 
6.30 
7.65 
5.98 
8.27 
6.88 

10.75 




New York Central 


2128. 


Lackawanna 


1732 


Central of New Jersey 

Pennsylvania 




2694 


Baltimore & Ohio .... 


2889 


Lehigh Valley 


2185. 


Erie 




Wabash 




Philadelphia & Reading 

Toledo, St. Louis & Western. . . . 






Chicago & Alton 




Chicago & North Western 

Chicago, Burlington & Quincy. . 
Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul. . 
Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific 

Minneapolis & St. Louis 

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe. . . 
Denver & Rio Grande 


2300. 
2376. 
2361. 
2530. 


2541. 
3156. 


Illinois Central 






10.21 

7.72 


3085 


Mpls., St. P. &St. S. Marie 






2320. 


Southern Pacific 






3343 


Union Pacific 








3593 


Northern Pacific 






8.21 
9.41 


1916. 


Great Northern 






2240 











LITERATURE. 

Weekly and Monthly Papers. 

Railway Age Gazette, New York. Railway and Locomotive Engineering, New 
York; Railway Master Mechanic, Chicago; American Engineer and Railroad 
Journal, Chicago ; Railway and Engineering Review, Chicago ; American Ry. 
Master Mechanics' Association, Proceedings; Master Car Builders' Associa- 
tion, Proceedings; American Maintenance of Way Association, Proceedings; 
Western Railway Club, Chicago, Proceedings; Western Society of Engineers, 
Chicago, Proceedings; New York Railroad Club, New York, Proceedings. 

Text -Books. 

Goss: "Locomotive Performance," Wiley, N. Y., 1907. 
Henderson: "Locomotive Operation," Wilson, Chi., 1907. 
Henderson: "Cost of Locomotive Operation," Railway Age, 1906, 



CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 85 

Reagan: "Simple and Compound Locomotives," Wiley, N. Y., 1907. 
Sinclair: ''Twentieth Century Locomotive," Ry. & Loco. Engr., 1903. 
Sinclair: "Development of the Locomotive," Sinclair Pub. Co., 1907. 
Woods: "Compound Locomotives," Railway Age, 1893. 
Pennsylvania R.R., "Tests at Louisiana Purchase Exposition," 1905. 
Railway Age, "Locomotive Dictionary," Railway Age Gazette, N. Y., 1909. 

References of General Interest. 

Baldwin Locomotive Works. Handbooks and Records. 

American Locomotive Works. Catalogs and Pamphlets. 

Walker: Compensated or Balanced Locomotives. Ry. Age Gazette, Aug. 14, 1908. 

Dodd: Locomotive Data. Proc. A. I. E. E., June, 1905. 

Goss: The Effect of High Rates of Combustion. N. Y. R. R. Club, Sept., 1895. 

Fry: The Proportions of Modern Locomotives. N. Y. R. R. Club, Sept., 1903. 

Kennedy: Walschaert Valve Gear on Locomotives. N, Y. R. R. Club, Sept., 1906. 

Superheaters. 

Toltz: N. Y. R. R. Club, Sept., 1907: S. R. J., Sept. 28, 1907. 

Schmidt: Ry. Age Gazette, July 17, 1909. 

Converse: Ry. Age Gazette, Nov. 20, 1908. 

Fry: Ry. Age Gazette, March 5, 1909. 

Report: International Railway Congress, June, 1910; Ry. Age Gazette, June 22, 1910. 

Report: A. S. M. E., 1909, XXXI, p. 989; Ry. Age Gazette, Jan. 20, 1911. 

Goss: A. R. M. M. Assoc, 1909-10; Ry. Age Gazette, Feb. 24, 1911. 

Vaughan: Superheat on the Canadian Pacific Ry., N. Y. R. R. Club, April, 1906. 

Cost of Operation of Steam Locomotives. 

Ry. Age Gazette: Tests at St. Louis Exposition, 1904. 

L. H. Fry: Cost of Handling Locomotives, R. R. Gazette, Feb. 19, 1904. 

C. & N. W. Ry. : Cost of Repairs on Each Type of Passenger and Freight Locomotive, 
A. E. & Ry. Journal, Sept., 1904. 

Murray: N.Y., N. H. & H. Tests, A. I. E. E., Jan. 25, 1907, p. 148; Nov. 8, 1907, 
p. 1682; April, 1911. 

Armstrong: Steam and Electric Locomotives, A. I. E. E., Nov. 8, 1907, p. 1662. 

Courtin: European Locomotive Practice for Very High Speeds, International Rail- 
way Congress, 1910. 

References on Mallet Engines. 

Mellin: Articulated Compound Locomotives, A. S. M. E., Dec, 1908. 

Emerson: On Great Northern Mallets, A. S. M. E., XXX, p. 1029, 1908. 

Hutchinson: Mallet versus Electric, A. I. E. E., Nov., 1909. 

Southern Pacific Locomotives and Tests: Railroad Gazette, Aug. 17, 1906; Ry. Age 

Gazette, Jan. 14, 1910. 
Santa Fe Locomotives: Ry. Age Gazette, Nov. 26, 1909; Apr. 14, 1911, p. 906. 
Track: Latter-day Development of Amer. Steam Locomotives, Eng. Magazine, Nov. 

and Dec, 1909. 
Scientific American: Papers on large steam and electric locomotives, Vol. 62 — 25,678; 

25,698; Sup. 22 and 29, 1906. 
Dean: Mallet Locomotives, Railway Age Gazette, June 10, 1910. 
Caruthers: Development of Articulated Locomotives, Ry. Age Gazette, Sept., 1910. 
Table on Mallet Locomotives, Ry. Age Gazette, Apr. 21, 1911, p. 955. 



CHAPTER III. 
ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS. 

Outline. 

Basis. 

Physical Advantages : 

Capacity, flexibility, simplicity, safety, reliability, improved service. 

Financial Advantages : 

Gross Earnings Increased. — Motive power characteristics, passenger traffic 
attracted, freight service of high-grade, freight service for trunk lines, terminal 
traffic, delivery of freight and passengers, branch line electrification, frequent 
train service, suburban service. 

Operating Expenses Decreased. — Maintenance of ways and equipment, wages 
and time saved, fuel and power, train-mile and ton-mile data. 

Investments decreased or increased. 

Earning Power and Net Earnings. 

By-products of Electrification. 

Advantages in Business Depressions, and in Competition. 

Social Advantages : 

Safety in travel, time saved, hard labor decreased, conservation of natural 
resources, cost of transportation, cost of living, esthetic enjoyments, social 
conditions improved. 

Objections to Electric Traction : 

Conservatism, crude presentation of situations, investments necessarily larger, 
complication, number of electric systems, interchangeability, danger, depend- 
ence on power plants, transimission losses, interference with signal lines, dis- 
card of steam locomotives; Illinois Central Railroad case, experimental for 
important service, a luxury, the financial problem. 

Literature : 

Physical advantages of electric traction, financial data on operation. 



86 



CHAPTER III. 

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS. 

BASIS. 

The advantages of electricity for traction form the basis of electric 
railway economics. These advantages will now be outlined in a sys- 
tematic manner for reference, and to facilitate a study and comparison 
of the operating features of steam and electricity for train haulage. 

PHYSICAL ADVANTAGES. 

All of the advantages of electric traction depend primarily on the 
application of the physical characteristics of electric power. This appli- 
cation of electric power requires the utilization of the heat of burning 
fuel, or the energy of falling water, as a primary source of energy, which 
is then converted into electric power, and transmitted by wires over long 
distances to motors which propel the trains on the railway division. 
This plan is now used in modern transportation, and it provides: 

Capacity, flexibility, simplicity, safety, and reliability ; and an improved 
service produces two definite results: 

Financial advantages and social advantages. 

CAPACITY. 

Ample capacity is a very useful physical advantage in transporta- 
tion. In dealing with heavier traffic, capacity must be increased in 
every direction, in the motive power, and also in the efficient use of the 
cars, tracks, and terminals. 

Capacity in electric motor power is obtained from central power 
stations, from which energy is transmitted in large amounts, over great 
distances, to electric motors which have great power per unit of weight, 
and which are able to withstand heavy overloads. 

Electric motive power for railway train service means ample drawbar 
pull, and good speed. Electric motors on the locomotive frame, or dis- 
tributed on the passenger-car trucks, provide the maximum possible 
tractive effort for heavy tonnage, or for rapid acceleration. 

The hauling capacity of important roads having frequent and heavy 
trains is often limited by the long tunnels, the heavj^ grades, the support 
for the roadbed, the single track, and the terminal facilities. 

The tendency of modern methods of freight transportation is to use 
cars in 2000- to 3500-ton trains. In ore and coal trains, the rated load 
of each car runs up to 140,000 pounds with the usual 10 per cent, over- 
load allowed under M. C. B. rules. The drawbar pull for heavy trains 
on the up-grades is enormous. Slow speed is the present handicap and, 

87 



88 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

while a high speed is not desired, a moderate, sustained speed on the up- 
grades has economic advantages. • * 

Passenger and mail coaches of steel now weigh 50 to 70 tons each. 
The best steam railroad locomotive, of the Pacific type, weighing 200 
tons, with 4200 square feet of heating surface, 22x28 cylinders, and 
79-inch drivers, as used on the "Twentieth Century Limited," lacks in 
capacity, and can haul only six (6) steel cars at 60 miles per hour. 
(Railway Age: Editorial and data beginning Dec. 24, 1909.) 

Examples are given to illustrate and to prove that ample capacity is 
available with electric traction. 

New York Central Railroad, in and near New York City, uses electric 
traction. The important results of this notable electrification were, an 
increase in the length and weight of the trains, an increase in the number 
of trains, an increase in the schedule speed, the ability to use locomotives 
with greater hauling capacity and speed, and therefore an increase in 
the capacity of the terminal. The capacity could not be increased to the 
satisfaction of the stockholders and the public by using more and heavier 
steam locomotives. Wilgus, St. Ry. Journ., Oct. 8, 1904. 

Manhattan Elevated Railroad, of New York, was formerly, in point 
of earnings, one of the largest steam roads in the country. Steam 
locomotives hauled, at most, 4- or 5-car trains at 11 to 10 miles per hour. 
The elevated structure could not be rebuilt or increased in strength; nor 
was there any way of improving the train service and capacity except by 
a change in motive power. Electric power was introduced in 1902, the 
installation being completed in June, 1903. The substitution of elec- 
tric power made possible an increase of 33 per cent, in the carrying 
capacity of the road, as was proved by the actual increase in mileage 
and in passenger traffic. The electric trains now have 6 or 7 cars, running 
at 15.0 to 13.5 miles per hour. Incidentally, between 1901 and 1904, 
the operating expenses dropped from 55 to 45 per cent., and the traffic 
which had been lost, because of competition, was regained. 

New York Subway of the Interboro Rapid Transit Company is a four- 
track road. Ten-car passenger trains are now dispatched on the local 
and the express tracks on 108-second headway. About 666 cars pass a 
given point per hour in each direction. Electric-pneumatic brakes stop 
the train, running at a speed of 40 miles per hour, in a distance of 365 feet. 
Each 10-car train is equipped with motors equal to 3200 h.p. or more 
than twice the horse power used on steam locomotive-hauled trains. 
The number of seats per train is 500 and the service requires platforms 
of the full train length, 510 feet, and three side doors per car. 

Steam railroads cannot even approach these results. Illinois Central 
Railroad, at Chicago, has less than 1000 cars in 24 hours. 



ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 89 

Long Island Railroad electrification work ^^ greatly increased the 
capacity of the line, and especially that of the Brooklyn terminal, which 
could not be operated by steam up to its present capacity." Gibbs. 

" In the average steam terminal it was rarely possible to place, load, 
and dispatch more than 5 or 6 trains per hour from any track. But 
with multiple-unit equipment, it was possible to increase this to 8 or 10 
trains per hour, the equipment of some 4 or 5 of them being that of trains 
that had come in and unloaded their passengers on that track. A multi- 
ple-unit shifting crew makes but half the number of movements as com- 
pared with steam service and, with a crew of two, easily accomplishes 
the work. of two yard engines." McCrea, General Superintendent. 

Great Northern Railway, in 1909, equipped its main line thru the 
Cascade tunnel with electric power, for the purpose of avoiding the smoke 
and the gases which retarded traffic thru the tunnel, and the capacity 
of the Cascade Division. 

^^The great increase in the speed of trains with electric traction and 
the consequent increase in the capacity of a single track will operate to 
postpone for a long time the necessity of double tracking. This double 
tracking in the mountains is a very expensive piece of business, and the 
saving alone will, in some cases, more than offset the cost of electrical 
equipment." Hutchinson, before A. I. E. E., Nov., 1909. 

Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway of England, in 1904, electrified its 
Liverpool-Southport passenger branch. The results were: 

Thirty steam locomotives with tenders, and 152 coaches, having a 
seating capacity of 5084, were replaced by 

Thirty-eight 60-foot electric motor cars, and 53 coaches, having a 
seating capacity of 5814. 

Frequency of passenger trains was doubled; acceleration and average 
speed were increased; and two of the four tracks, on the section used for 
passenger service, were appropriated for freight service. The number 
of passengers increased 14 per cent., yet the ton-mileage decreased 12 
per cent. 

''The electrification of the line from Liverpool to Southport, 26 
miles, will double the carrying capacity of the line and also practically 
double the terminal accommodation." J. A. F. Aspinwall, Manager. 

North -Eastern Railway, out of Newcastle, England, 82 miles of track, 
with an average distance between station stops of 1.25 miles, was elec- 
trified in 1904. Motor cars are used for freight and for passenger 
haulage. Train haulage on this road has since increased about 100 per 
cent., yet the ton-mileage has actually decreased. 

Much more work is now done at the terminal stations, as there 
are no engines to attach or detach. Trains are dispatched at one- 
minute intervals. Signal operations were reduced about one-half. 



90 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Higher acceleration was realized which decreased the running time 
between stations 15 to 19 per cent. It would have been impossible to 
carry by the steam service the number of passengers now electrically 
conveyed. Harrison^ to British Inst, of Civil Engineers, November, 1909. 
Capacity Can be Gained without Electric Operation. — However, that 
may require an increase in the weight and heating surface of steam 
locomotives to increase the drawbar pull and the accelerating rate; or 
a long and wasteful cut-off in the steam cylinder to get faster accelera- 
tion or higher speed. It may require the use of double-end, tank types, 
or concentrated weights in steam locomotives; an increase in the rolling 
stock; an increase in the number of trains; or heavy expenditures for 
double tracking and grade reduction. Expenses are increased by the 
unnecessary or undesirable increase in the ton-mileage of the steam 
equipment, and often the increased operating expenses and interest 
charges cannot be balanced by an increase in the net earnings. 

FLEXIBILITY. 

FlexibiHty is a valuable physical advantage, since it contributes to 
the economic superiority of electric traction. Examples are reviewed: 

Electric locomotives in 1000-h.p. units are used to haul ordinary 
250-ton trains, while two coupled locomotive-units are used for heavy 
550-ton trains in thru train service (New Haven Railroad). This is 
often done with steam locomotives, but not to advantage, for it is hard 
for 2 enginemen and 2 firemen to control 2 independent steam 
locomotives. The 2 electric locomotive units are controlled from the 
front cab by one operator. Again, two 66-ton coupled electric loco- 
motives are operated as one unit for 1000-ton freight trains, while one 
66-ton electric locomotive is used for a 200- to 350-ton passenger train 
(Grand Trunk Railway) . Again, one type and size of electric locomotive 
is often inherently suited for either'passenger or freight service. (New 
Haven 1300-h. p. freight locomotives). 

'' On the New York Central electrification one of the results was to 
replace the dozen types and sizes of locomotives formerly used within 
the territory determined for electric operation by a single type and size 
of electric locomotive with such a capacity and capable of such control 
as to meet all the requirements of speed and power, whether switching in 
the yards or hauling the heaviest trains at schedule speed." Sprague. 

Electric locomotive frames, superstructures, and wheels are sym- 
metrical, which provides flexibility in operation and eliminates the 
great expense at the turn-table. With steam locomotives the coal and 
water supply must trail, for safety. With electric equipment, the most 
advantageous use of cars, tracks, and terminals becomes possible, 
particularly for concentrated working of express and freight service. 



ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 91 

Motor-car trains provide for absolute flexibility of train operation. 

Controllers of the automatic type may be located for use at either end 
of each electric locomotive, motor-car, or coach — whichever happens to 
come at the head of the train. Similarity of equipment of motor-cars 
is such that they may be coupled up in any combination, whatever the 
nature of the service or length of the train. Head- and tail-switching are 
abolished. Electrically controlled trains, by reason of the mechanical 
flexibility are economical, and are adapted to frequent service and to 
rapid changes in the traffic. 

SIMPLICITY. 

Simplicity is evident. Compare the moving parts, the rotating motor 
armature in one case, and the eccentric strap, rocker arm, valve gear, 
reciprocating valves and stems, pistons, piston rods, cranks, and unbal- 
anced driving wheels in the other case. Boilers and furnaces are absent 
in electric trains. Fewer parts reduce the wear, tear, and maintenance. 

SAFETY. 

Safety to life and property, and reliable service, are promoted by 
electric railway transportation. Simplicity and safety in the operation 
of electric locomotives and of the motor-car train are discussed at length 
under the following headings: 

Design of electric motors avoids track pounding. 

Control circuits prevent accidents. 

Automatic devices safeguard operation. 

Speed may be decreased with safety, or limited, by design. 

Long wheel bases are avoided on trucks. 

Vigorous tests are easily made. 

Regeneration of energy in braking prevents accidents. 

Tunnels are made safer. 

Boilers are avoided. 

Fire risk to property is decreased. 

Exhaust steam and smoke are absent. 

Enginemen are not distracted with other duties. 

Electric meters assist in operation. 

Weights are not excessive, so as to spread rails. 

Design of electric motors is such that there is an absence of that track 
pounding which in steam locomotives is caused by the reciprocating 
motion and unbalanced forces. After a single trip of the Pennsylvania 
18-hour, New York to Chicago train, 20 broken rails were reported. 
This did not reflect so much on the integrity of the rail manufacturer, or 
upon the design of the rail section or weight, as on a characteristic of 
the steam locomotives. 

The distribution of weight and the uniformity of the tractive effort in 



92 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

electric motors contribute to safety on the roadbed, curves, and bridges. 
Broken rails and driver axles, common sources of wrecks, are decreased. 

Control circuits prevent accidents. The section terminals in the 
regular signal towers of the New Haven and other electric rail- 
roads are 2 to 3 miles apart, and are placed in charge of signal men. 
This introduces a new element in the safe running of trains, because a 
signal man can stop a train by cutting off power at his end of the section 
and telephoning the signal man at the other end to do the same. Power 
circuits can be opened to prevent accidents by providing distant control 
of circuits at the signal stations, substations, or power plant. 

Automatic devices are provided on the controller's in the cabs of 
electric trains to shut off the power instantly, if the engineman for any 
reason — death^ collision, etc. — removes his hand from the control handle. 
This is a further safeguard to the traveling public. 

The accelerating rate is controlled automatically, independent of the 
operator. Controllers are often so arranged that the train cannot be 
started if the air reservoirs have not sufficient pressure for braking. 
Other devices automatically shut off the power and apply the brakes if 
the train passes its signals. Elec. Ry. Journ., March 5, 1910, p. 419. 

Speed may be increased safely as was proved by Berlin-Zossen tests, 
where speeds of 130 m. p. h. were attained. In motor controllers, speed 
limiting devices are in common service. Synchronous motors have -a 
fixed maximum speed. 

Long rigid wheel bases are not required, and thus the curves are 
taken smoothly, and safely, at high speed. 

Vigorous tests to detect troubles on electric power equipment can be 
made with ease, and in a simple way, by using a voltage 3 or 4 times the 
normal. 

Regeneration of energy provides for electric braking on down-grades. 
Electric trains in the mountains are so controlled, regularly, and not in 
the emergency; and the air brakes are used for reserve. It is very 
advantageous to run down the grade with the train under full control. 
Air-braking in the mountains causes shoes to wear out quickly, defective 
brakes, brake-rigging, and loosened wheel rims. A decrease in the 
number and in the cost of wrecks is important. 

Tunnels are made safer with electric power. This is the universal 
experience. The walls are lighted and whitewashed; the rails are not 
greasy or slippery from condensed steam; the smoke and gases do not 
suffocate; and little danger exists if the train stalls. Long tunnels may 
be operated as safely as short ones. Electric locomotive operation on 
the steepest and longest tunnel grades is practical. Enginemen and 
trainmen have confidence in electric power, and the long mountain 
tunnel has lost its terrors. 



ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 93 

x\ir brakes, or electric brakes, can be used on electric trains on heavy 
grades in tunnels where 'formerly it was necessary to use hand brakes. 
With a break-in-two of a steam train in a tunnel, the air could not be 
released or the train recoupled, because the trainmen were suffocated 
by the locomotive gases. 

Boilers present dangers from furnaces, high pressures, explosions, 
scaldings, water in cylinders, damage from reciprocating pistons and 
mechanism, which are avoided in electric trains. 

Fire risk is decreased and loss is avoided with electric traction as 
there are no sparks to set fire to valuable forests, buildings, docks, 
snow sheds, grain and hay, freight cars, and their contents. There is 
less risk of fire in case of a wreck. 

Exhaust steam clouds, the cause of many expensive railroad accidents, 
following the inability of the lookout to see the signals and the track, 
in the tunnel or in the open, are absent in electric traction. 

Enginemen of electric trains have clearer judgment. They are placed 
in a cool and comfortable situation. The view between the cab and the 
track and signals in foggy weather is clearer. Electrical control allows 
them to put their mind on the safe piloting of the train, without the 
distraction due to steam-power generation and the care of mechanism. 
The importance of this is evident to one who knows the strain on an 
engineman in watching for signals and listening to the train motion. 
Safety is also promoted by the quietness which is due to the absence of 
exhaust steam, the pounding of reciprocating pistons, and unbalanced 
drivers. Judgment of enginemen of electric trains is thus clearer in 
emergencies. 

Electric meters assist in intelligent operation of the motive power 
and this is recognized as a great advantage accompanying electric 
traction. The exact service performance of each electric generating 
unit at the station, and of each feeder section, is obtained by a glance 
at indicating meters, or a study of curve-drawn power sheets, and the 
integrated record of the energy supplied. Meters in the cab indicate the 
h. p. which is supplied to the railway motors. A glance at the meter 
shows the rate at which the train is accelerating. Tests are not needed; 
the facts are instantly apparent, and the engineman is posted, is fore- 
warned, and acts intelligently to remove the cause of any defect. He 
gains confidence while the equipment is in operation. 

Enginemen on the electric locomotives of the New York Central, the 
New Haven, the Grand Trunk, and other roads, use the indicating meters 
to advantage, and particularly so if the overload is great. When the 
snow is deep and the tractive effort is high, the meter is particularly 
advantageous; and if trouble is suspected, the meters in the cab furnish 
valuable information. Steam locomotive enginemen, by long experience 



94 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

under set conditions, know the drawbar pull and the h.p, developed and 
the boiler overload, but only in a general way. 

Weights are not excessive with electric traction. Weight per foot of 
total wheel base varies from 6000 to 7000 pounds and is only 10 per 
cent, less than in steam locomotive practice; but the total weight of an 
electric locomotive is about one-half that of a steam locomotive per 
h. p. developed. In motor-car trains the weight is only one-third, and 
its distribution is excellent. The decreased strains promote safety. 

RELIABILITY. 

Reliability in electric traction results from simplicity. Reliability 
of service has been radically increased by electric roads, particularly on 
trunk lines and in terminal service. This fact is particularly noticeable 
in times of snow storms and extremely cold weather. Duplication, of 
boilers, generators, transmissions, and motors is necessary for reliability, 
but generally these do not add to the total cost of the equipment needed. 
A single motor of many in a train may burn out, yet not affect the service. 
Controllers are complicated yet are wonderfully reliable. 

Results on electrified roads furnish this evidence: 

Manhattan Elevated Railroad was a good example of a well managed 
steam road from 1872 to 1902. Records fairly compared show double 
the car-mileage per train-minute delay, with electric power. ''The 
delays in traffic with electric power were less than 40 per cent, as numer- 
ous as when steam power was used." Stillwell. 

New York Central records for the New York terminal service for 
four months, July, August, September, and October, 1908, show a total 
train delay of only 160 minutes. 

New York Central records for 1909 state that 177,802 trains were 
handled by electric motors with a total train-minute delay of 36,563, or 
an average detention of 12 seconds per train, a record unequalled in the 
history of railroading. 

''New York Central electrical service during 1908 showed there was 
not one minute delay because of the power station, substations, or trans- 
mission lines. The delays from feeders were 7 train minutes; from third- 
rail, 150 train minutes; from electric locomotives, 400 train minutes, out 
of a total locomotive mileage of 1,000,000 and a total multiple-unit train 
mileage of over 3,500,000. The average delay was 1 minute for each 
3,000 train miles travelled. The average train movements per day in 
and out of the Grand Central Station was 450." Katte, before New York 
Railroad Club, March 19, 1909. 

Long Island Railroad records: " Motor-car miles per detention, 9514." 

West Jersey & Seashore: "Motor-car miles per detention, 6118.'' 



ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 95 

Interborough Rapid Transit records, noted in St. Ry. Journ., March 
28, 1908, show that an average of 257,759 car-miles were operated per 
1-minute delay in power supply on the Manhattan or Elevated division. 
Figures showing such a reliability of power supply have never been pro- 
duced by any steam railroad. 

Hudson and Manhattan Railroad motor-car train service between 
New York, Jersey City, and Hoboken, averages about 72,CO0 car miles 
per 1-minute delay. The service is severe, with the recognized dis- 
advantage of underground operation, a headway during rush hoxirs of 
60 seconds, 2200 trains per day on a double track, more passengers per 
car-mile than any rapid transit line, numerous sharp curves, and grades 
from 2.0 to 4.5 per cent. 

Grand Trunk Railway locomotives are in severe tunnel-grade service 
for freight and passenger traffic between Port Huron and Sarnia, and 
each makes over 100 miles per day. Records recently given by the elec- 
trical engineer to the writer show one 8-minute delay in one year. 

New York, New Haven Hartford records made for the year 1910 
show that the electric locomotive failures per train-mile were only two- 
thirds as frequent as those of the former and existing steam locomotiyes. 
The average mileage per detention, many of which only elightly exceeded 
one minute duration and include all mechanical trouble, is 2 to 3 times 
better than with steam locomotives. 

The reputation of a railroad for reliability of schedule speed, and for 
safety, determines the amount of traffic, in some measure. The weak 
roads, the ones with inferior power and delayed trains, are known and 
avoided. Reliable service and ample capacity are determining features 
in passenger and freight haulage, when there is a choice of routes. 

Improved service results from these physical advantages — capacity, 
flexibility, simplicity, safety, and reliability. 

That electric traction can meet all the physical requirements for train 
service is now an established fact. 

FINANCIAL ADVANTAGES. 

The physical characteristics outlined contribute directly to definite 
commercial and economical advantages. Electric traction, however, 
always necessitates a large outlay of capital, and therefore the increased 
capital charges must be met by a combination of increased gross earnings 
and decreased operating expenses. 

GROSS EARNINGS INCREASED. 

The adoption of electric traction for train service has generally in- 
creased the gross earnings. Electric roads have increased their business 
per mile of track moi-e rapidly than other roads. Patronage has l)oen 



96 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

attracted and traffic has been developed, so that electrically operated 
trains now monopolize the suburban traffic, and without changes in fares 
and rates secure the interstate business and local freight haulage. 

Gross earnings are increased when the facilities offered, methods of 
transportation, and rates are satisfactory to shippers and to travelers. 

In general, it is more practical in railway transportation, electric or 
steam, to increase the net earnings by an increase in gross earnings than 
by a reduction in the operating expenses. 

Motive power characteristics of any road influence the amount of 
traffic or business. The railroad which handles the heaviest freight- and 
passenger-train service most advantageously will find that preference 
is given to it, and that business is routed via its road. Electric power 
can provide for increased train loads, with the same or higher speed, 
and facilitate the handling at terminals; and thus the profits on the in- 
creased or competitive business may overbalance the increased interest 
charges for electrification. 

Electric roads certainly have acquired and retained traffic, -and are 
progressing rapidly in train haulage. 

Railways create their own business and this is increased when the 
traffic is attracted by the motive power, excellent operative results, 
rapid acceleration, high schedule speeds, safety, cleanliness, increased 
conveniences, and comfort. 

Passenger traffic is attracted by electric trains and to such an extent 
that, with equal fares, speed, and equipment, the public seems to even 
discriminate in favor of electric motive power wherever it can be obtained. 

Freight service of a high grade is provided by electric trains, and is 
used by manufacturers, shippers, and merchants. Ample motive power, 
rapid work, and convenient transportation facilities induce traffic. 
These advantages are steadily increasing the amount of the fast or 
time freight business of electric railways. With the heaviest traffic, 
and on grades, the freight service is neither bunched nor throttled, 
because, with ample central station capacity, it is not necessary to reduce 
the loads or the speed, or to delay the switching. Freight traffic is thus 
expedited. 

Electric roads have now equipped freight cars with electric motors 
on the trucks; and these cars, when loaded, are hauled in three-car or 
longer trains for the local service on lines 30 to 100 miles long. Box 
cars with motors on axles are loaded with freight, and haul other cars. 
Hundreds of 30- to 50-ton locomotives have been put in service. 

Trunk lines in freight service can increase their gross earnings by 
adopting electric power. The laws of induced traffic apply equally 
well to trunk-line freight and to branch-line passenger traffic. 

The present method of operation, with steam traction, calls for a. 



ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 97 

train load which the locomotive can just drag up the ruling grade. The 
locomotive works overloaded, at 1/2 to 3/4 stroke; it runs at 6 
to 12 miles per hour; it delays all overtaking and opposing traffic; 
and, during 30 to 80 per cent, of the time, it is held at sidings, to avoid 
other traffic. The result is not only waste of fuel, high maintenance per 
ton-mile, waste of time of men, but a loss of time by other trains, in effi- 
cient use of track, procrastination in freight delivery, extra investments, 
car and locomotive shortage, dissatisfied shippers, and disappointment; 
but a heavy tonnage per train appears on the office records. 

At present freight service is not satisfactory to shippers, and gross 
earnings,' or business offered, are reduced when longer, slower trains are 
operated. The capacity of the road in relation to the rest of the system 
is restricted by the opposing freight trains, particularly in stormy weather. 

The value of a reduction in train-miles is evident, provided speed is 
well maintained. Expenses of operation are per train-mile, and amount 
to 50 to 60 cents for transportation expense, exclusive of fixed charges, 
office and general expense; so that on a 100-mile division with 10 trains 
per day, or 3,650,000 train-miles per year, the expenses are about 
$1,825,000 per year. Any small reduction in train-miles by more power- 
ful motive power makes the capitalized saving a large item. 

Low-grade freight service may be considered as traffic well estab- 
lished and somewhat set in its ways. In this service, longer trains can 
be hauled by electric power, to reduce the expense per ton-mile hauled. 

Electric locomotives improve the present methods of operation, and 
haul heavier tonnage at a higher schedule speed. Traffic is not delayed, 
and congestion is prevented. The equipment may be limited, but 
worked efficiently. When tonnage is carried at higher speed, the 
shipper remembers which road delivers the goods on time — winter and 
summer — and has efficient and powerful equipment. 

Traffic can be induced because most traffic is competitive. Traffic 
is given to the trunk line with adequate motive power, electric or steam. 
New business and manufacturing is started along a trunk line, when its 
reputation for service is good. Business is attracted by service. 

The central idea is to create new business, and to increase the gross earn- 
ings by simply providing better service, and higher speed, for the tonnage. 
The greatest field for electric power is in heavy steady freight traffic, 
because the amount of business, and the economies to be effected in fuel 
and labor, are larger than that with the fluctuating passenger service 
alone. 

Terminal traffic is made attractive by the use of electric locomotives 

and motor-car trains. Flexibility is also available for freight terminal 

service. The yards can be cleared as the freight accumulates; and thus 

the best facilities for concentrated working at congested terminals are 

7 



98 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

provided. Extra movements are not required for switching and 
coupling; the acceleration rates used save time; signal operations are 
reduced one-half; and complication is avoided. 

Terminal traffic is ordinarily dense; real estate is expensive, and track- 
age is limited. Minutes or even seconds saved, per train, by electric 
power may therefore be important, in order that the limited trackage 
may be used efficiently. 

Boston & Albany Railroad has considered electric traction for its 
Boston terminal. A. H. Smith, Vice-president, reports that if electricity 
were used as a motive power there would be an increase of 50 per cent, in 
terminal facilities; and incidentally, the cost of rolling stock would be 
reduced 20 per cent.; the running cost decreased 30 to 50 per cent.; and 
the repairs to rolling stock reduced from 10 to 50 per cent. Report to 
Massachusetts Board of Railroad Commissioners, 1908, on Electrification 
of Boston Steam Terminals. 

Boston Transit Commission, George C. Crocker, Chairman, reporting 
to the Legislature in April, 1911, contended that the increased traffic 
certain to follow the adoption of electricity within the Boston district 
would render the change financially profitable to the railroads. The total 
traffic at the steam railroad terminals at Boston exceeds 60,000,000 
passengers per year — or three times the terminal traffic at the Grand 
Central Station at New York. An increase of 20 per cent in the traffic, 
assuming that each passenger travels ten miles within the electrical 
district, at 1.6c. per mile, would add $2,000,000 to the gross earnings 
the first year, and more thereafter, which would pay 5 per cent, on the 
estimated cost of $40,000,000 required to electrify all the lines in the 
metropolitan district. The saving in real estate and its advantageous 
use would add greatly to the gross earnings. 

Grand Central Station terminal at New York, with steam service, 
had a car capacity of 366, while with electric service it will have 1149. 
The terminal track mileage is 32 miles, with 46 tracks against platforms. 
The new terminal has 46 . 2 acres on the main level and 23 . 6 on the sub- 
urban level. Electricity as a motive pow^r changed old conditions, and 
it is now only necessary to provide sufficient head room for the trains. 

Terminal capacity of most railroads is limited. Many railroads have 
already adopted electric power at terminals to increase their gross earn- 
ings. Congestion has been derceased, and train movements simplified. 
The matter is important because the cost of increasing terminal space 
and facilities is enormous, the cost being decidedly greater than the entire 
cost of electrification of existing terminals. 

Gross earnings are increased at terminals when ample capacity and 
increased drawbar pull per pound in the electric motive power allow 
heavier tonnage and faster schedule speeds than is possible in steam 



ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 99 

traction. Electric service provides for much greater ton-mileage with- 
out an increase in track, terminals, or car equipment. The improve- 
ment is of a magnitude and character impossible with steam service. 
The increased facility for handling business always results in augmented 
traffic and increased use of the given trackage, roadbed and equipment. 
The efficiency of a road is proportional to the ton-miles of freight, or the 
passenger car-miles hauled in a unit of time. 

Terminal yardage in some roads is ample; and additional cars would 
mean congestion of traffic. What is wanted to prevent congestion is 
not more trackage, or more locomotives, but efficient switching service. 
With electric traction a high degree of efficiency in this respect is possible. 

Delivery of freight and passengers is facilitated and oftentimes is 
made practical only with electric traction. Convenient terminals are 
important for long distance traffic; and they are very advantageous for 
short-haul traffic or rapid transit near large cities, since the convenience 
of the passenger and freight terminals increases the gross earnings. 
Interurban electric cars which pass thru city business districts now 
carry the bulk of the short-haul passenger traffic and much of the light 
freight. Problems concernings grade-crossings, terminals sites, and the 
best use of real estate are often to be solved by the use of a subway 
leading to a convenient terminal. Good facilities for passenger and 
freight delivery, especially where the traffic is competitive, are paying 
investments. 

With steam traction, passengers are often carried to a terminal very 
far from the business and resident center of the city, and a ferry trip, a 
trolley transfer, or a long walk is required. Electric trains make possible 
a more convenient and less expensive terminal, and this is especially true 
if a subway, tunnel, or elevated approach is utilized. 

Branch line electrification is often advantageous because with electric 
power on the main line, its use on the branch line, with electricity supplied 
from the central power stations to locomotives and to motor-car trains, 
is practical. Freight or passenger cars, wholly or partly equipped with 
electric motors, may be attached to, or taken from, the main thru train 
at a junction point. This plan increases largely the facilities for service, 
induces new traffic, and results in decreased cost of operation per train- 
mile on the branch line. 

Joint use of tracks by both steam and electric trains is now common 
on the same right-of-way, and without embarrassment to either. The 
track, the terminals, the labor, the management, and the capital are 
thus utilized to increase the gross earnings. 

Frequent train service is commercially practical with electric traction, 
and results in increased earnings. Ordinary steam railroad traffic must 
for economy of operation be concentrated in several heavy trains per day. 



100 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

In steam service, the irreducible elements entering into train-mile cost 
are so large that, in practice, a passenger train must earn at least 50 cents 
per train-mile. In electric service, the cost per train-mile is radically 
reduced. Frequent freight train service is furnished without a propor- 
tional increase in expense and, for times of light traffic, short freight 
trains may be run with economy. This reduction in the cost of trans- 
portation makes possible a more frequent freight and passenger service, 
to increase the gross earnings. 

In ordinary long-distance electric railway traffic, the method of opera- 
tion is to use many short or long trains for first-class fast-freight traffic, 
and to run them at frequent intervals, instead of long trains at infrequent 
intervals. This is the most economical method in a small electric rail- 
way, but it is not essential with 20 or more trains each way per day. 

The load on the electric power station furnishing service for frequent 
trains with long runs is much more uniform or steady than for infrequent 
service; and the operating expenses and amount of equipment are thereby 
reduced per ton-, or per train-mile, so that the cost of power is not neces- 
sarily greater than for less frequent, longer trains operated with steam 
locomotives. In practice, it is found that frequent passenger train service 
and the steady pull of the thru freight trains, on long lines, provides a 
most desirable load on the power station. 

Suburban trafSc earnings increase in amount and profit, and growth 
of suburban districts results when electric power is furnished from a central 
station for frequent train service. Suburban business is generally com- 
petitive business. It is steady and dependable; it is not affected by 
hard times, and requires small organization. 

There is at present almost universal complaint on the part of steam 
roads that subrban service does not pay. On the other hand, it is uni- 
versally accepted as a fact that electric suburban lines on a private right- 
of-way, with termini in large cities, 'pay handsomely, when in the hands 
of skilfully managed electric railway organizations. Steam railroads are 
now seldom willing to give up their alleged money-losing suburban 
service to an electric railway lessee; nor should they, in the light of 
recent electric railroad experience. 

''Economy of operation derived from the running of short and frequent 
trains will benefit the public and the railroads. Short, frequent trains 
are exactly what the suburbanite needs. The flexibility of electric 
power will give more frequent service at reduced cost; the elimination of 
switching will be advantageous, and overcrowding will be diminished. 
With more frequent and cleanly service, population will be attracted to 
the suburban territory as it is not under the present regime. The 
traffic will be generally increased by the introduction of electric service." 
Report of United Improvement Association, Boston, 1910. 



ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 101 

Suburban lines of steam railroads will certainly be gradually con- 
verted to electrical operation, to get more satisfactory results for the 
stockholders and for the public. The work already done, and the econ- 
omic results thereof, justify this statement. 

Electric trains on city streets radiating from our large cities will take 
the business away from the steam roads until they in turn use modern 
motive power for suburban train service extending from 10 to 30 miles 
out from cities; yet the steam railroad, with its superior right-of-way, 
requires a much smaller investment to attract this business, or to regain 
what has been lost. A commuter on the train of an electrified steam 
road can be assured of a comfortable seat, and decidedly better service. 

" The 'present cost of doing suburban business upon our lines is excessive, 
it is only by largely increasing the volume that we can hope for remuneration. 
To handle the same as at present is a burden, and to increase the volume 
and reduce the cost thru the substitution of electricity for steam seems the 
only solution.'' President Mellin, of New York, New Haven & Hartford 
Railroad in annual report, June, 1904. 



FINANCIAL ADVANTAGES— OPERATING EXPENSES DECREASED. 

Statistics on classification and proportion are first presented. 

OPERATING EXPENSES OF STEAM RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Interstate commerce commission report for 
Year ending June 30. 




1908 



Maintenance of way and structures : 

Repairs of roadway 

Renewals of rails 

Renewals of ties 

Repairs and renewals of bridges, culverts. . . 
Repairs and renewals of fences, crossings . . 
Repairs and renewals of buildings, fixtures. 
Repairs and renewals of- docks and wharves 

Repairs and renewals of telegraph 

Other expenses 

Maintenance of equipment: 

Superintendence 

Repairs and renewals of locomotives 

Repairs and renewals of passenger cars. . . . 

Repairs and renewals of freight cars 

Repairs and renewals of work cars 

Repairs and renewals of marine equipment, 

Repairs and renewals of shop machinery 

Other expenses 



10.720% 


10.834 


1.322 


1.145 


2.901 


2.388 


2.374 


1.984 


.487 


.407 


2.181 


2.288 


.254 


.224 


.142 


.211 


.472 


.175 


.632 


.567 


6.208 


7.664 


2.164 


1.932 


7.038 


9.114 


.210 


.276 


.247 


.196 


.512 


.657 


.584 


.658 



102 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



OPERATING EXPENSES OF STEAM RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES 

Continued. 



Interstate commerce commission report for 
Year ending June 30. 



1899 



1908 



Conducting transportation: 

Superintendence 

Engine and roundhouse men 

Fuel for locomotives 

Water supply for locomotives 

Other supplies for locomotives. . . 

Train service 

Train supplies and expenses 

Switchmen, flagmen^ and watchmen.. 

Telegraph expenses 

Station service and supplies 

Car mileage — balance 

Loss and damage 

Injuries to persons 

Clearing wrecks 

Operating marine equipment 

Outside agencies and commissions 

Rents for tracks, yards, and terminals, etc. 

Other expenses 

General expense 



1.767 


1.761 


9.690 


9.366 


9.478 


11.471 


.619 


1 .670 


.536 


.631 


7.583 


6.389 


1.527 


1.597 


4.149 


4.509 


1.906 


1.763 


8.206 


7.022 


2.010 


1.427 


.734 


1.477 


.874 


1.229 


.147 


.348 


.868 


.667 


1.975 


1.300 


2.388 


2.023 


2.574 


1.894 


4.521 


3.736 



Grand Total 100.000 



100.000 



Operating expenses of steam railroads, given in the accompanying 
table, are changed by electrical operation about as follows: 



COMPARISON OF EXPENSES OF STEAM AND ELECTRICAL OPERATION. 



Motive power. 


Steam. 


Electric. 


Maintenance of roadway and rails 


11.98% 

7.66 

9.37 
11.48 
59.51 


,10.00%o 
4.00 


Repairs and renewals of locomotives 


Engine and roundhouse wages 


6.00 


Fuel and power for trains • 


6.00 


All other items 


56.00 


Repairs and renewals of overhead work 


1.00 








Totals 


100.00% 


83.00% 





ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 103 

Repairs, wages, and fuel of many steam railroads are frequent!}^ 30 
per cent, higher than the average. 

The exact amount which can be saved in the above items by the use 
of electric power depends largely upon the density of traffic, the cost of 
coal or water power, and the local situation; but, in general, competent 
engineers hold that many railroads can reduce the percentages noted for 
steam operation to those noted for electric operation. The conditions 
are even more favorable for a reduction in operating expenses A^hen a 
new road is built and operated with electric power. 

Comparable conditions of operation must be considered, including 
all of the freight and passenger service, and a sufficiently long run. 

Decrease in operating expenses, with electric traction, is now found to 
amount in the aggregate to a relatively large sum. The subject was 
first analyzed by Mr. William Baxter in a technical article in the Elec- 
trical Engineer, New^ York, February 19, 1896. The writer of this book 
presented the subject in greater detail in a paper before the Northwest 
Railway Club in January, 1901 (St. Ry. Review, Jan. 15, 1901, p. 39; 
St. Ry. Journ., March 9 and 30, 1901, p. 328). Messrs. Lewis B. Stillwell 
and Henry S. Putnam have treated the subject comprehensively in a 
paper on ''The Substitution of the Electric Motor for the Steam Loco- 
motive," to American Institute of Electrical Engineers, January, 1907. 

The classification of operating expenses in the Interstate Commerce 
Commission's annual reports are often used as a basis for comparisons 
of the cost of steam operation undei* existing conditions with the probable 
operating results by electricity. Heretofore the latter were estimates 
by operating engineers or engineers for electrical manufacturers. Many 
were biased. However the records of the Long Island, West Jersey & 
Seashore, New York Central, New Haven, Erie, Grand Trunk, Great 
Northern, and many other railroads are actual. The records are now 
being compared with results from steam traction; and some general 
facts regarding the financial value of electrification are thus being 
established. Some facts are being furnished to electric traction engineers 
and to the technical press. 

The physical advantages of electric power, when properly applied to 
railways, have actually decreased the operating expenses and increased 
the net earnings. The matter therefore deserves study. The best of the 
meager financial data which are now available will be considered briefly, 
and reasons given for the conclusions reached. 

OPERATING EXPENSES. 

Cost of maintenance of way, particularly of the roadway and rails, 
is reduced when electric power is used, for several reasons: 



104 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

a. Rotary motion and steady continuous effort of balanced armatures 
of spring-mounted motors cause less track shifting, rail spreading, damage 
and breakage at switches, at special work and at curves, and less loss to 
roadbed, masonry, steel bridges, heavy grades, and trestles, than is 
caused by the steam locomotive, with its long rigid wheel bases, its con- 
centration of weight per axle, the pounding of its unbalanced drivers, 
the varying reciprocating effort of its pistons, and its enormous thrusts 
and nosing effects. 

b. Weight of electric locomotives is about one-half of the weight of 
steam locomotives, per h..p. developed. See tables pages 56 and 291. 

c. Distribution of the weight of the electric locomotive and of the 
motor-car train is materially better than that of the steam locomotive 
hauled train. 

''Mersey Railway records for three years of steam traction fairly 
compared with three years of electric traction, show that the effect 
of electric traction on the maintenance of the permanent way has been 
to reduce the cost of maintenance per ton-mile from 0.0416 cent to 
0.0240 cent; and as regards the life of rail under the two systems, the 
average rolling load over the track before the rails require renewing is 
increased from 32,000,000 to 47,500,000 tons." J. Shaw, before British 
Institution of Civil Engineers, November, 1909. 

Burgdorf and Thun Railway, a steam road, electrified in 1896, has 
found that the expense for track maintenance has decreased. Tissot. 

Metropolitan West Side Elevated Railroad, Chicago, reports: 

"The fear that renewal of track, frogs, switches, armatures, commu- 
tators, gears, pinions, etc., might after a certain period become expensive 
has not been realized after 10 years of constant heavy service. At the 
same time the service has been immensely improved in frequency, speed, 
and general desirability." Brinckerhoff, to A. I. E. E., Jan. 25, 1907. 

Non-spring-borne weights of motors, with low center of gravity, on 
small driving wheels are harder on the special track work, crossings, 
and curves than on the main track. Ordinarily, however, the service 
with electric trains is at least double that of steam; and the cost of main- 
tenance of way and structures, and of rails, increases as the car or ton- 
mileage increases. The additional hammer of the small wheel when 
going over the intersecting gap of the crossing, coupled with the non- 
spring-borne weight of the motors, has been found to decrease the life of 
the crossing. On the straight track, no definite opinion can be formed 
that there is an increase or decrease. The difference is not very marked. 
If acceleration rates with steam locomotives were high, the weight would 
be increased, making steam locomotives more severe on the track. 

In high-speed electric railroad train service, weights of large armatures 
and motors must be spring-borne. 



ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 105 

Cost of maintenance and repairs of equipment is decreased with 
electric power for the following reasons: 

1. Simplicity of moving machinery and apparatus is evident. 

2. Friction of electric power equipment is smaller. 

3. Depreciation rate is therefore much slower. 

4. Inspection required to maintain equipment is less. 

5. Repairs and renewals of electric locomotives and motor cars are 
less than with steam locomotives, as is detailed later. 

6. Coal and water supply substations, with labor to maintain 
them, are not needed. These are concentrated for economy at one 
station. 

7. Fewer locomotives are required to do an equal amount of work. 
Three electric locomotives will ordinarily replace five steam locomotives. 

8. Wrecks are fewer, and the expense in connection therewith is less. 
Wrecks are decreased by automatic electric devices, meters, circuit 
control, etc., as described under Safety. 

9. Cleaning and renovating of car equipment is a smaller item. 
Steam locomotive smoke, dirt, and cinders, when mixed with condensed 
steam, cling tenaciously to cars, seats, varnish, and paint; and their 
removal is expensive, and wears the materials. 

10. Painting and cleaning of cars, stations, overhead bridges, and 
tunnels are less in the absence of locomotive gas and smoke. 

11. Corrosion of steel in structure, viaducts, telegraph wires, signal 
cables, pipes, rails and spikes is also less. 

These items, except the last, are considered in detail in other chapters, 
under Maintenance of Electric Locomotives, and Motor Cars. 
Wage expense is reduced where electric traction is used. 

1. Locomotive and roundhouse work is less. The cost of maintenance 
of the electric locomotive is about 50 per cent, of that of the steam loco- 
motive. The inspection and repairs are less; time is not required for 
drawing fires, washing flues, cleaning boilers, etc. 

2. Locomotive enginemen do not receive the same high rate of wages 
on electric locomotives as on steam locomotives. Electric locomotive 
operation is simpler and requires less skill than the running of a compli- 
cated power house on wheels. On many electrified roads the same wages 
are paid now as before, but this may not be continued. The New York 
Central zone rates are 38.5 cents for enginemen on electric and steam 
trains, 23 cents for^firemen on steam trains and 21 cents for helpers on 
electric trains. 

3. Helpers are generally superfluous with electric locomotives, altho 
one helper is always necessary on heavy trunk-line, high-speed service. 
There is some work, in terminal yards, on work trains, construction work, 
branch lines, etc., where one locomotive man is ample. On some German 



106 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

and Italian railways the train conductor rides with the electric locomotive 
operator; and is competent to take his place in an emergency. 

Motor-car passenger trains require only three men per 6- to 10-car 
train, a motorman, conductor, and brakeman; and the total wages paid 
are about one-half of what was formerly paid for the same service with 
locomotive-hauled trains. 

New York Central motor-car trains run at high schedule speed in the 
electric zone from the Grand Central Station to North White Plains, 24 
miles, and to Hastings, 20 miles; and with a car mileage of 4,000,000 per 
year, a large saving is made. Similar results are obtained on other elec- 
trified steam roads, 

4. Automatic devices, like the dead-man's handle, and interlocking 
devices on control mechanism, make two men in the cab unnecessary in 
many cases. Meters in the cab facilitate intelligent operation. 

5. Ton-mileage per day with electric traction for freight trains is 
also greater. A saving of 25 per cent, is to be expected in wages, because 
of the higher schedule speed of freight trains, particularly so on heavy 
grades. Electric passenger locomotives make double the mileage of 
steam passenger locomotiveson the same line, because there are fewer 
and quicker switching movements and less time is spent in repair and 
inspection, in building fires, in washing out, etc. 

6. Increased hauling capacity with electric traction makes a remark- 
able saving in the wages of the engineman and the fireman, and also in 
the wages of the entire train crew, because, with the longer train at some- 
what higher speed, the wages paid per ton-mile hauled, or per train-mile 
run, are less. 

7. Double-heading of electric locomotives does not require a duplica- 
tion of the locomotive crew, because the control is so arranged that one 
engineman operates both units. 

8. Time is not wasted, with electric power, in delays caused by lack 
of good coal, inefficient steaming, bad water, and cold weather; and less 
time is needed for road repairs. 

9. Electric locomotives can perform more continuous service, and 
wages expended in shopping are saved. 

10. Less time and labor are required for switching service. 

11. Labor is more efficient, because a better class of skilled men and 
laborers are attracted by electrical operation. Cleanliness and skilled 
mechanical work are contrasted with washing of hot boilers, removal of 
boiler mud and scale, dirt and smoke, and ash and clinker cleaning. 

The wages paid at the central electric power station and on trans- 
mission line repairs are in themselves a large item; but they are a small 
item per train-mile, or per ton-mile hauled. 

12. Speed of suburban trains is increased, 25 to 50 per cent. It is 



ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 107 

clear that higher speed saves in wages. In service with frequent stops^ 
the rapid acceleration of trains radically increases the schedule speed. 
In fact, electric railway operators join in stating that steam locomotives 
could not handle the now^ largely augmented traffic and the present sched- 
ules, without prohibitive expenditures for terminal trackage, locomotives, 
cars, trains, and wages. 

Fuel and motive power expenses per ton-mile or per train-mile hauled 
are reduced about 50 per cent, with electric traction, because: 

1. Cheap w^ater power reduces the cost of fuel, and for that reason 
water power has been adopted by a large number of electric railways. 
The subject is detailed under Steam, Gas, and Water Power Plants. 

2. Cheap fuels reduce expenses. The cheapest fuels are burned on 
suitable stokers of large boilers with ample draft in modern power plants 
The lowest grades of fuel, lignites, culm, cheap screenings, and waste 
products can be burned under properly designed boilers and in gas pro- 
ducers. It is predicted that many important railway power plants will 
be built at coal mines to use the abundant low-grade fuel which is now 
wasted and that the power will be transmitted by wires, rather than by 
high-grade bituminous or anthracite coal, or fuel oil for service near 
terminals, tunnels, resident districts, flour mills and factories where 
cleanliness is necessary; and at forests, wharves, sheds, and yards where 
the fire risk must be reduced. 

3. Power is produced efficiently on a large scale, by means of eco- 
nomical apparatus, in one plant, and not in many relatively wasteful small 
locomotive plants. 

''Railroads will have to come to electricity, not only to get a larger 
unit of motive power, but on account of fuel. We have to use fuel to 
carry our fuel and there are certain limitations here, particularly when 
we consider the distribution of the coal-producing regions with respect 
to the major avenues of traffic. This great saving, resulting from the 
use of electricity is apparent, quite aside from the increased tractive 
power and the train load.'^ E. H. Harriman, Elec. World, March, 
1907, p. 538. 

4. Furnace efficiency of boilers is high because: Furnaces and grates 
are properly designed to burn the bituminous coal available; coal is fed 
and ash is removed continually, not intermittently; sufficient and proper 
draft is provided; firemen are skilled; combustion space is ample; fire- 
brick arches further combustion before the gases reach the boiler surfaces; 
load is uniform or does not change quickly; nor is it necessary to have 
great overloads at a central station. The opportunity to burn common 
bituminous coal efficiently, in an individual locomotive furnace, does not 
exist. A central station furnace which smokes is seldom found, and 



108 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

indicates gross negligence, lack of common engineering skill in design, 
or lack of money to build properly. 

5. Utilization of the power produced is efficient because there is a 
reduction in the amount of power required. 

a. Weight of the electric locomotive is only one-half of the weight of 
the steam locomotive and tender, as was explained. The excess weight 
of a common 170-ton steam passenger locomotive, over a 100-ton electric 
locomotive, with equal weight on drivers and with equal capacity, is 
large. Many electric locomotives weigh less than a loaded coal and 
water tender. If hauled 100 miles per day, 300 days per year, at a net 
cost of $0,003 per ton-mile, the saving of 70 tons, made possible with 
electric power, is $6300 per year per locomotive. An additional saving 
of 15 to 45 per cent, in weight, is made by the motor-car train. 

b. Power is transmitted to the axles with minimum friction, by 
means of economical motor drive, and not by cumbersome mechanism. 
Head-end, bearing, and rubbing friction are less. 

6. Regeneration of energy on the down grade and in braking, which 
is practical, represents a large possible saving. 

Fuel saving is discussed qualitatively under ^^ Electric Locomotives." 

INVESTMENTS INCREASED OR DECREASED. 

Investments are generally increased with electric traction. This is 
clearly a set-off. Net earnings are reduced by the added interest, the 
depreciation, and the taxes on the investment in the power plant, trans- 
mission lines, and motor equipment. 

Capitalization per mile of track is not an indication of high or low net 
earnings. The important point in operation is to utilize the investment 
in the road to the highest degree and to reduce the capital charges by 
providing the maximum tonnage per mile of track. Ample capacity and 
economical power with electric traction favor this plan of operation. 

Higher investment in electric motive power equipment is a drawback, 
but the cost of electric motive power is only a fraction, about 20 per cent., 
of the total cost of a railway, as is detailed in Chapter XIV. 

Investments are decreased in many cases: 

a. Immense investments are unnecessary when, with reasonable 
investments in electric motive power, existing facilities and expensive 
terminals suffice for decidedly greater traffic. 

b. Terminals and entrances to our larger cities, for both freight and 
passenger tracks, may be made underground, or by superimposing the 
tracks, either above or below the ground level. 

c. Grades may be steeper, and total investments be decreased, 
because the height and length of bridges may be less, and roads may be 



ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 109 

shorter. The Colorado Springs and Cripple Creek Railway is 19 miles 
long, with 5 per cent, ruling grade and 3 per cent, average grade; while 
the steam railroad, with low grades between the same terminal points, 
17 miles apart by air line, is 52 miles long. E. T. W., Sept. 25, 1909. 

d. Limiting grades are higher on electric railroads. The steeper 
grade may result in a shorter route, or in reduction in the amount of the 
cuts and fills. The traffic is not throttled or congested at the mountain 
division. The '^ruling grade" becomes an obsolete term and, in place 
thereof, the longer trains are limited by the "ruling curve." 

e. Roadbed may cost less. Narrow-gage railways, which are com- 
mon in Europe, use electric power where steam locomotives would not 
have the requisite capacity for heavy and long trains. 

f. Substructures may be lighter with electric power, because of the 
weight distribution and the absence of reciprocating machinery. 

g. Motive power equipment and rolling stock are used efficiently. 
More work is accomplished over a given track, or tunnel section, or over 
a mountain division. Time is saved by higher speed and by efficient 
and simple movements, to prevent further investments for double tracks, 
bridges, tunnels, and rolling equipment. The cost or amount of rolling 
stock needed is frequently reduced 20 per cent, by advantageous use. 

h. Three electric locomotives replace five steam locomotives, because 
the former can be kept almost continuously in operation. 

i. Round-house equipment is reduced, by the substitution of inspec- 
tion sheds for round houses, turn-tables, heating plants to wash out boilers, 
coaling plants, pumps, water tanks, and piping. 

j. Heavier traffic on 2.2 per cent, grades is practicable with electric 
power; and this prevents immense investments for double tracking or 
for grade reduction. As an example of the latter: 

Bernese-Alps Railway, Switzerland, has recently bored a new double- 
track tunnel, the Loetschberg, thru the Alps, for a direct north and 
south line between London and Milan, via Berne and the Simplon Tun- 
nel. Two distinct plans for handling the traffic were under consideration 
— a 1.5 per cent, grade route with a tunnel 13.1 miles long, and a 2.7 per 
cent, grade route with a tunnel 8.5 miles long. Steam locomotives would 
have required the low-grade route. Electric locomotives are used and 
they saved about $6,000,000 in the cost of the tunnel. 

EARNING POWER AND NET EARNINGS. 

The ratio of gross earnings less operating expenses to investment is a 
measure of the earning power of railways. It is therefore essential that 
gross earnings be larger, or that operating expenses be smaller, in order 
that net earnings shall be in proportion to the total capital invested. 



no 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



Analysis is simpler when the increased net earnings are compared with 
the increased capital required to furnish the electrified track or other 
improvements. 

Gross earnings are easily compared; but a comparison of operating 
expenses, before and after electrification, is difficult. It is practically 
impossible to compare directly the cost of steam and electricity per train- 
mile. The introduction of electricity generally alters the type and size 
of the train. Each steam locomotive-hauled train with five to ten 
passenger cars is changed to several 3- or 4-car trains, operating on the 
multiple-unit system. In freight service the trains may be either 
decidedly longer, or have a higher schedule speed. 

Comparison should be made on the basis of good service, on the basis 
of traffic hauled, per seat-mile, per car-mile, per ton-mile, but not per 
train-mile. In some cases it is found that the cost of service by electricity 
is higher than for service by steam, because of the faster rate of acceler- 
ation, higher speed, better care of equipment, and the better service 
provided; but all of these may radically increase the gross earnings. It 
is recognized that there is an increase of traffic, and a changed condition 
of business, when electric power is used on a large scale or main lines. 



INCOME ACCOUNT OF STEAM RAILROADS 


OF THE UNITED STATES. 


Item. 


Total, 1908. Per track-mile. 


1908. 


1907. 


Gross earnings 

Operating expenses 


$2,458,000,000 
1,670,000,000 
788,000,000 
459,000,000 
228,000,000 
101,000,000 


$7,366 

5,005 

2,361 

1,377 

682 

302 


100% 
68 
32 
19 

9 

4 


100% 
66 


Income from operation 


34 


Interest on debts, paid 

Dividends paid 

Available for improvements 


16 
9 
9 



Cost of road and equipment was $19,472,650,000 for 333,646 miles 
of single track or $58,363 per mile. The year 1908 represents a lean 
year while 1907 was more prosperous. 

EXAMPLES OF FINANCIAL ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION. 

Data per mile of track on a prairie division: 

Motive power Steam Electric 

Investment $30,000. $36,000. 

Gross earnings $5000 . $6000 . 

Operating expenses 2800. (56%) 3000. (50%) 

Net earnings 2200. 3000. 

Interest on investment at 6% 1800. at 7% 2520. 

Net income 400. 480. 



ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 111 

Estimate for a proposed 200-mile road: 

Assets: January 1st. 1910 1912 

Cost of road and equipment $8,000,000 10,000,000 

Materials and cash on hand 400,000 430,000 

Total cost of road . 8,400,000 10,430,000 

Liabilities: 

Capital stock 4,000,000 4,000,000 

Funded debt 4,000,000 6,000,000 

Surplus 400,000 430,000 

Total 8,400,000 10,430,000 

Year ending Dec. 31. 1910 1912 

Motive power • Steam. Electric. 

Gross earnings from operation 1,000,000 1,250,000 

Less operating expenses and depreciation 650,000 (65%) 750,000 (60%) 

Income from operation 350,000 500,000 

Deductions from income: 

Interest on funded debt, 5% 200,000 300,000 

Net income or net earnings 150,000 200,000 

Dividends on stock, 3% 120,000 120,000 

Surplus from operation 30,000 80,000 

Electric traction increases the cost of road and equipment, and thus the interest 
charges on funded debt are greater. Gross earnings increase, and expenses decrease. 

Manhattan Elevated Railroad Company statistics are presented: 



Comparison : 



Operating expenses, per cent. . . . 

Passengers carried 

Car mileage 

Receipts per car-mile 

Operating expense per car-mile. . 
Operating expense per passenger 



Steam, 1896. 



58.1 
185,138,000. 
43,241,000. 

21.60^ 

12.20 

2.92 



Electric, 1904. 



41.2 

286,634,000. 
61,743,000. 

22.95^ 
9.50 
2.04 



Operating expenses per car-mile: 


Steam 1901 


Electric 1904 


Maintenance of way and structures 


0.927?i 
1.304 
10.046 
12.277 


1.047^ 
1 325 


Maintenance of equipment and plant 


Power supply, for transportation 

Total operating expense per car-mile 


7.096 
9.468 



112 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

London, Brighton & South Coast Railway, electrified in 1909, reports 
that there has been, as compared with the corresponding period of the 
last year of steam operation, an increase of 55 per cent, in the number 
of passengers carried, and a recovery of practically the whole traffic 
abstracted by the local electric tramways. 

West Jersey & Seashore Railroad, running between Philadelphia and 
Atlantic City, increased in traffic at a rate of less than 2 per cent, per 
year until it was electrified in 1907. The first year showed an increase 
in gross earnings of 20 per cent, over the preceding year of steam opera- 
tion; and operating expenses were decreased. See Chapter XV. 

New York Central Railroad terminal division at New York, where 
economy could hardly be expected because of the short distance and 
the time electric power had been used, to Sept., 1907, shows a decided 
decrease in operating expenses after allowing for the increased capital 
charges for electrification; the prediction is made of still larger savings. 
Wilgus, A. S. C. E., March, 1908. 

Long Island Railroad was the first steam railroad company to use 
electric power on a large scale over a considerable portion of its line. 
Operation began in 1905. The 1909 mileage was 120; the number of 
motor cars, used in 3- to 6-car trains, was 136. The annual report of 
President Peters for the year ending December 31, 1908, endorsed the 
electric railway service, which had been in operation for about four years. 
In addressing the stockholders he stated: 

'^The extension of electric service from Queens to Hempstead was 
put in service May 26, 1908, and all train service to Hempstead branch 
has since been operated by electric power. The results therefrom are 
very satisfactory both in increased business and in economy. The 
general results on that portion of your system which has been electrified 
fully justified the expenditure made in accomplishing that result." 

Long Island Railroad has recently announced that, as a result of 
the electrification, the road was operating at a cost sufficiently below 
that of steam operation to pay the interest on the extra investment 
and to yield a handsome surplus. The steam road had been operating 
with an annual deficit. The results were a pleasant surprise, in view of 
the incompleteness of the installation and the large expenditures at termi- 
nals, power stations, etc., from which only a small advantage could be 
at once derived. 

BY-PRODUCTS OF ELECTRIFICATION. 

By-products, or incidental advantages, often accompany electric 
traction. For example, several by-products of the New York Central 
electrification were the following: 



ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 113 

Underground or sub-tracks were used for all suburban railway trains, 
the level being retained for main-line trains. This saved, at the ter- 
minal station, two city blocks, valued at $50,000,000. 

There was a saving of $200,000 per year in current for lighting 
terminal yards, power for isolated service, and for freight elevators. 

There was a saving of $114,000 per year on switching, now carried on 
during the period of non-peak loads at the power station. 

Safety devices in connection with signals allowed a greater degree of 
automatic control of train movement. The second engineman was 
superfluous, even for checking signals. A great saving in labor resulted. 

Railway plant service by electric power combined effectually with 
electric lighting, air compressing, water pumping, exhaust steam heating, 
and power service, to reduce materially the fuel, labor, and maintenance 
cost of these services. 

Double decking of freight tracks in buildings and freight storage 
warehouses will economize in real estate, and in freight handling. 

Streets again occupy the space over many depressed tracks leading 
from the railroad terminal. Frequently these cross streets are several 
blocks long, and give to the public very valuable and increased facilities 
for normal street traffic. 

Buildings were placed over the tracks to use the valuable real estate 
for immense office buildings, substations, a Government Post Office, etc. 

Hudson & Manhattan terminal building, which is one of the most 
important office buildings in New York City, is located over subterranean 
railway loops. 

Real estate salvage following electrification generally amounts to 
large sums, since the abolition of the steam locomotive enables sweeping 
changes to be affected along the route, and in the terminals and yards, 
allowing the construction of new streets, and the building of commercial 
structures, union stations, post office substations, etc., immediately 
above the electrified trackage. Real estate and property along the 
right-of-way generally show a great increase in value for residential 
and office purposes, resulting from cleanliness and the absence of noise 
from exhaust steam. 



ADVANTAGES DURING BUSINESS DEPRESSIONS. 

Advantages during business depressions, such as the financial flurry 
which began in October, 1907, and ended aboy+ May, 1909, are noted. 

The Commercial and Financial Chronicle of iviu,. ' 1908, gives the 
January, 1908, losses by steam railroads, compared with thobt. of January, 
1907; and the Electric Railway Journal of April 4, 1908, quotes the gains 
of electric railways for the same period. 
8 



114 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



COMPARISON OF EARNINGS 



Railways. 


103 representative steam 
roads. 


29 representative electric 
roads. 


Gross earnings 

Net earnings . . . 


12.9% loss. 
22.9% loss. 


5.3% gain. 
10.0% gain. 





Statistics recently compiled show that electric railways fared much 
better than steam railroads during the late depression. 

Returns from 203 electric railways show an increase in both gross and 
net earnings in 1908 over 1907. The gross earnings for 1908 were 
reported as $280,262,681 against $278,387,557 in 1907, and net earnings, 
$117,441,782 as against $114,406,399 in 1907. 

The gross earnings of 164 steam railroads in 1908 decreased 11.89 
per cent, compared with 1907, while electric railways increased their 
gross and net earnings. If the record had been on heavy electric rail- 
ways in place of strictly passenger lines they would have been more 
comparable. Voegelin, in Railroad Age Gazette, Dec. 24, 1909. 

ADVANTAGES IN COMPETITION. 

Advantages in competition are obvious at this time. Lower fares 
and freight rates will be the rule with electric trains because the cost of 
operation with electric power is lower; because the method of operation 
is improved; and because, cumulatively, the density of increased traffic 
makes for economy. The product of the lower fare by the number of 
passengers, and the product of the lower freight tariff by the tonnage are 
both greater than the corresponding income from less business at higher 
rates, when the railway uses a motive power having the greatest physical 
advantages and economy of operation. 

Mersey Railway, of England, Manhattan Elevated Railroad, and scores of steam 
railroads have been compelled to adopt electric power to avoid bankruptcy. 

Boston & Albany, Boston & Maine, and the New Haven road have recently been 
subject to such competition by the growth of suburban electric railways at Boston 
that, to regain their traffic from their terminals and to handle business with economy, 
they are now considering the electrification of large zones radiating from the North 
and South stations at Boston. 

A very large traffic, which was previously taken away from the Lancashire & 
Yorkshire Railway by electric lines which ran parallel to it, was regained, after the 
road was electrified, according to J. A. F. Aspinwall, General Manager and Engineer. 

The subject of competition and patronage was reviewed on pages 20, 21, 22. 



ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 115 

SOCIAL ADVANTAGES. 

One advantage of electric traction, which the broad-gage engineer 
should not fail to see, is that by its use human society is distinctly bene- 
fited. Engineers are employed primarily to save money for stockholders. 
There is, however, real and legitimate gratification when the engineer 
realizes that, with the reduction of the cost of freight and passenger 
transportation by the use of better and more economical motive power, 
he has effected safety, health, and comfort in travel, a conservation of 
natural resources, and improved social conditions. Professional success 
of the engineer may well include fame and honor and the accumulation 
of wealth, all of which are worthy ends; but if engineering is a worthy 
art, it must also include the promotion of welfare and happiness of others, 
and a bettered condition of humanity. 

There is no work which gives such gratification in transportation 
service as the making of provision for greater safety to property, and 
particularly to life. Safer travel, fewer wrecks, and a saving in time 
furnish to all society pleasures, contentment, and freedom from anxiety. 
The engineer often has an opportunity to prevent social unhappiness 
incidental to economic waste. There is an incentive in such work. 

Conservation of natural resources results from efficient use of coal. 
Much of the coal mined is now used very wastefully in locomotive fur- 
naces. The coal useH at the central electric railway power station is 
burned economically, by mechanical stokers, and the records show that 
50 per cent, of the cost of fuel is saved, per ton-mile, in transportation. 
Coal is expensive; it is generally hauled 500 to 1000 miles before it is 
used, and it should be burned in an economical manner. 

Labor is decreased, as a result of the efforts of the engineer to save 
coal, which now requires so much brutal labor and drudgery. 

The governments of Sweden, Switzerland, Germany, and Italy use 
water powers and lignite coal fields in order to prevent the necessity of 
importing foreign coal. This plan, in connection with the electrification 
of their railways, w^ill conserve the natural resources, and, moreover, will 
keep the nation's money in the country. Many railways in America 
will consider the installation of electric power stations at coal mines to 
utilize the waste coal, culm, duff, dust, lignite, and screenings. 

Reduction in the cost of freight transportation will follow the reduction 
already made in the cost of fares. Electric power, with its physical 
advantages, reduces the cost of transportation by reason of the economies 
effected. More scientific and efficient methods can be used in operation. 
Lower freight rates allow the movement of low-grade freight, and improve 
the ''business situation" on which most of the people of the country are 
more or less dependent. 



116 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Cost of living is decreased when electric lines make suburban and 
country districts accessible, by frequent service, fast schedule, and low 
fares. Lower rent, good health, and reduced prices for vegetables, fruit, 
and transported food will prevail. (It is, however, not the trolley car 
which will carry the suburban resident, but the high-speed electric 
train on the private right-of-way with a terminal station in the heart 
of the business district. Distances are really measured on a time basis, 
and the time of regular daily travel should not exceed one hour.) 

Esthetic enjoyments are realized when electric traction is used. 
Cleanliness and fresh air contribute to the pleasures of travel, and 
consequently to the welfare of the public. Ventilation of steam trains 
is bad, for it is necessary to exclude the locomotive gas, smoke, and 
cinders. It is not practical to ventilate even sleeping and dining cars in a 
suitable manner. The majority of travelers do not ride in the sleeper, 
but in the crowded coaches and their health must be conserved. The 
Lackawanna Railroad uses anthracite coal, and therefore advertises 
cleanliness via the '^ white way." Travelers remember the cleanliness 
of electric roads, from Philadelphia to Atlantic City, from New York to 
Stamford, to White Plains, and to Yonkers, the tunnel connections 
from New York City to distant points on Long Island and New Jersey, 
Rochester to Syracuse, Chicago to Aurora, Chicago to Milwaukee, 
Springfield to St. Louis, etc. 

Smoke from locomotives is a nuisance not to be tolerated in business 
and resident districts. The injury to persons, to their health, and to 
their property is large. Smoke is a hindrance to the development of civic 
beauty and refinement. The sociological importance of cleanliness is 
well understood. The financial importance of the subject is becoming 
known. The cost of cleaning smoke and dirt from the body and the 
grime and soot from the clothing "is large. The traveling public includes 
those who journey for pleasure and- necessity, but all want fresh air and 
cleanliness. Black smoke from the stacks of locomotives is especially 
a nuisance. The use of fuel oil, coke, smokeless and anthracite coal, is 
expensive, and not a practical remedy. It is ^possible to operate loco- 
motives without smoke, but it is not economical to do so, on account of 
the labor involved, and the additional maintenance cost at the furnace. 

Lives of millions of people are shortened by the necessity of breathing 
gases and soot arising from the use of steam locomotives in cities. 

Noise from exhaust of steam locomotives disturbs sleep, particularly 
that of nervous or sick people, young or old. Portions of cities, even at 
some distance from steam railroad tracks, are now rendered by this noise 
absolutely undesirable for homes. The noise from train movement is 
not objectionable, but that from the harsh, unmuffled exhaust is detri- 
mental to public welfare. 



ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 117 

Property close to steam roads suffers from cinders, smoke, noise, and 
dingy conditions, caused by the steam locomotives; it is not desirable 
for offices or residential purposes. Windows cannot be kept open, and 
not only cleanliness, but also good health is affected adversely. When 
roads are electrified, property increases very much in value, and apart- 
ments which were uninhabitable can be occupied without disturbance. 
Real estate dealers recognize this fact. 

Ordinances now prohibit the use of steam locomotives within large 
parts of Annapolis, Brooklyn, Hoboken, and New York City. Similar 
ordinances will soon govern in Boston, Washington, Buffalo, Cleveland, 
and Chicago. 

Social conditions are improved, as a result of low passenger rates and 
decreased cost of living. These two items affect largely the comfort, 
welfare, and amount of recreation of the inhabitants of cities. In some 
American and in many foreign cities, millions are saved every year, in 
hospital bills alone, to say nothing of happiness, health, and improvement 
in social conditions, where the inhabitants of the congested districts get 
to the country, to the suburbs, and to the lakes cheaply and frequently. 

With the more frequent and cleanly service which can be furnished 
with economy in electric traction for railway trains, population will be 
attracted to the suburban territory many miles from the city, as it is not 
under the present conditions. 

OBJECTIONS AND OBSTACLES TO ELECTRIC TRACTION. 

There are objections and obstacles which prevent a general applica- 
tion of electric power to railways. Reasons for these are here outlined. 

Conservatism is generally a marked characteristic of railway men, to 
whom, naturally, the untried electric railway is not attractive. Capital 
ah:o is shy and hard to interest in a new investment. Electric railways 
have usually been built by successful promoters, men with daring, enthu- 
siasm, and resourcefulness, men who have waited and worked for years 
to carry out their plans. 

Crude presentations of situations, made by enthusiasts, young 
engineers. New York-Chicago air-line promoters, and men without 
experience in railroading, have been responsible for much opposition and 
distrust. Electrification plans must be well presented. 

Lack of ample information on the part of the promoter, of his engin- 
eers, and of conservative capitalists, frequently results in the abandon- 
ment of deserving propositions. There may be simply a lack of facts on 
operation, and experience and resources with which to surmount obstacles. 
There are, however, conditions which make electrification impractical, 
as detailed in Chapter XIV, ''Procedure in Railroad Electrification." 



118 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Investments are always larger with electric traction than with steam 
traction, and there is an added annual charge for interest, taxes, and 
depreciation. The extra investment may be justified by increased net 
earnings, but the initial outlay required is often a handicap. 

Some American railroads have already issued stocks and bonds up to 
the limit of their average earning capacity. Other roads can raise the 
funds, but the terms would bring an undesirable burden, too heavy to 
be carried comfortably. Money for improvements of undoubted value 
is frequently unobtainable when large amounts are needed. Increased 
economy, with electricity, may be in sight, but it is quite another thing 
to take advantage of electric traction. 

Many vested interests are deeply concerned in the railroad, as one 
finds when the electrification of a road is considered. The business 
interests of the country and of the railroad are not separated, but are 
dependent on each other, and sometimes these interests are opposed to a 
change in motive power. 

The actual cost of the electric power equipment required is, however, 
generally a small portion of the total cost of a railroad. This is not always 
understood by those who oppose investment for electric traction. 

In many cases electrification was or will be compulsory, and estimates 
and reports made by railroads have been and certainly will be adverse, in 
fact a railroad is not expected to minimize its difficulties when a large 
possible expenditure confronts it. 

Complication is suggested by the central electric power station, 
electric generators, transmission lines, distribution at high voltages, 
transformation and utilization of power by motors, in place of a multitude 
of simple steam locomotives. The necessity exists for different tools, 
and trained labor for the inspections, maintenance, and repairs of the 
electrical equipment. Added standards, patterns, castings, and also 
office records are needed if the two motive powers are combined on a 
steam and electric railway. Technical skill of a different grade is required 
with electric traction. 

Systems of electrification are confusing, for there are advocates of the 
third-rail vs. trolley, direct current at 1200 volts with many substations 
vs. alternating current at 6000 or 11,000 volts; 25 vs. 15 cycles; single- 
phase vs. three-phase current; series-compensated vs. series-repulsion 
motors. Some electric systems are not interchangeable. Moreover, each 
system has been so successfully applied to train service that the best is 
not easily selected. Steam railroad engineers, after 50 years of splendid 
experience, are still unsettled on the relative merits of different mechani- 
cal types and frames; singe vs. compound engines; 2- vs. 4-cylinder 
compound; balanced engines vs. track pounders; and there are to-day 
may distinct kinds of locomotives advocated for common railroad service. 



ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 119 

Danger to employees and to the public, from the use of electric power, is 
to be considered. Accidents occur from unprotected third rails and from 
crude overhead high-potential construction. 

New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad has over 100 miles of 
11,000-volt trolley in regular freight and passenger service on its New 
York Division. There have been accidents and fatalities, and a few 
trainmen have been killed by contact with the trolley wires; but no 
trainmen has ever been killed in the locomotive or motor cars. 

Prussian State Railway has made tests on its high- voltage railway lines to deter- 
mine the liability of fire and the danger to life resulting from cars coming in contact 
with broken trolley wires. Passenger cars with standard wooden bodies were forced 
in contact with live wires. Tests showed that every contact between the car and 
the wire produced a short circuit which instantly tripped the circuit breaker in the 
substation and automatically cut off the power. In a few cases imperfect short 
circuits were established, and fire resulted; but if there was the slightest movement 
of the car there was a complete short circuit and the power was cut off. Tests made 
inside the car showed that in no case was any leakage produced which could be 
detected by the human hand or body. In practice, grounding wire are provided on 
car roofs to make sure that there will be sufficient current to open the automatic 
circuit breaker and thus prevent risk to trainmen and passengers. 

Electric motive power at practical voltages will always be dangerous; 
high pressures on steam locomotives are always dangerous; but all are 
necessary for economy. 

Dependence on electric power plants for the entire motive power of 
important railways may seem unwise. The break-down of a steam loco- 
motive cripples only a short section of the division. A failure of electric 
power means that the expense continues as usual, but with a loss of 
earnings, a loss of reputation, and demoralization of the men, management, 
and traffic. The capacity of a division of a railway which uses electric 
power is decreased by an accident to the transformers, .controllers, 
transmission, or contact line; and, in some measure, trains will be 
bunched. 

There is, however, in common power plants, because economy and 
physical reasons require it, a duplication of boilers, turbo-generators, 
transformers, and feeders. The important exception is the overhead 
contact line, and it is essential that simplicity should govern here because 
on single-track roads this is the only equipment which cannot be easily 
duplicated. Reliability of service in practice has not been questioned. 
Prudence dictates that two separate power plants be erected for important 
long trunk-line railroads. 

Transmission losses, with large amounts of power, were so large, 
until about 189G, that power transmission for railroad service was not 
practical. Power could not be furnished directly from one central 
power plant to 15 scattered electric locomotives until the power could 



120 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

be transmitted economically at least 30 miles. Electric traction for 
trunk-line service required that high voltages — above 5000 volts — be 
utilized on the contact line. High-voltage transmission and contact 
lines have been so perfected that reliable electric power is now delivered, 
with very small loss, to distant railroad trains. 

Interference with signal systems, blocks, and telephone and telegraph 
lines is no longer caused by electric currents. Apparatus has been 
devised to effectually prevent interference from high-voltage lines, by 
leakage, induction, static discharges, or ground currents. Reference: 
Taylor, to A. I. E. E., Oct., 1909; G. E. Review, Aug., 1907. 

Discard of steam locomotives is not necessary when electric traction 
is adopted. Steam locomotives are short-lived at best, and 12 years is a 
long life if the equipment is really used. Steam locomotives may be 
used advantageously on other divisions. Renewals of locomotives by 
purchases of equipment are charged to maintenance, not to construction. 

Illinois Central Railroad case is here considered briefly. Upon demand 
of the Chicago City Council in 1909 that all suburban lines be changed 
to electric power, it gave four reasons why electrification could not be 
undertaken. 

First. — The state of the art is such that electric operation of large 
freight terminals at Chicago is impracticable. 

Second. — Operation by electricity would not result in economies 
sufficient to pay an adequate return on the large additional investment. 

Third. — Interchangeable electric motive power equipment for motor 
cars and locomotives has not yet been developed. 

Fourth. — Smoke nuisance can be avoided by using coke as fuel for 
locomotives and gasolene as fuel for motor cars, and this improvement 
would suffice in place of electric operation. 

Extensive freight terminals are now electrically operated by the 
Lancashire & Yorkshire Railway, England; by Grand Trunk Railway 
at its Sarnia Tunnel; by Michigan Central, at Detroit; by Hoboken 
Shore Railroad, and a score of small terminals listed in Chapter I, which 
use electric locomotives for freight haulage. The matter of size or 
degree does not radically increase the difficulty of the situation, but 
sometimes improves the financial prospect. 

Data on cost of operation presented by the railroad were based on 
82 . 9 per cent, operating expenses for steam and 66 per cent, for elec- 
tricity. Increase in traffic and in gross and net revenue which were 
not admitted in the Illinois Central report, can be anticipated to a very 
large extent. 

The cost of electrification of 52 miles of suburban road was estimated 
at $154,000 per single-track mile, a sum which was certainly based on 



ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 121 

improvements much more far-reaching than were actually required for 
providing electric motive power and equipment. Rearrangement of 
tracks and terminals was certainly advisable, but there was no reason 
why the substitution of electric power for steam power should necessitate 
track changes, particularly so w^hen overhead conductors are used. 

The financial results from operation on the New York Central and 
Long Island Railroads are held to have increased the net earnings more 
than sufficient to pay the interest on the added investment for electrifi- 
cation; and if this is true with passenger traffic from a terminal, addi- 
tional economies will be effected when the whole road is electrified and 
the freight and yard work is added. 

The third objection reported by the Illinois Central Railroad officials 
was that at New York City the New York Central and New Haven 
equipments were not interchangeable, and that the Central could not 
send its direct-current electric trains over the long-distance 11,000-volt 
electric lines of the New Haven road. This objection is true. New 
Haven single-phase, electric motor-car trains and freight and passenger 
locomotives can, however, run anywhere over the New York Central, 
Long Island, and Pennsylvania Railroad electric tracks. 

Finally, the use of coke and of gasolene for heavy work is an experi- 
ment; and, up to this time, there is little to indicate that either fuel would 
be physically successful. Gas from the coke, and the noise and odor 
from the gasolene, would be a nuisance; economy would probably not 
result; and traffic would not be increased with such a motive power. 

An important meeting of railroad officials with the transportation 
committee of the Chicago City Council was held December 8, 1909, at 
which the electrification of the terminal lines was considered. The rail- 
road men contended that ^^electrification was impracticable: first, 
because of cost; second, because of danger to employees; third, because the 
science of electrification is not sufficiently matured to make it applicable 
to the freight terminals." 

The Illinois Central could adopt electric power to realize higher 
economy and greater net earnings; but that would precipitate a situation 
on all the steam roads. The example at the New York City terminals 
already worries the railroads entering Chicago. 

In February, 1911, all of the steam railroads having terminals at 
Chicago agreed to a 2-year study of the electrification problem, by a 
Commission of 17 steam railroads executives, city officials and business 
men, under the auspices of the Chicago Association of Commerce. The 
scope of the work embraces the following investigations: The necessity 
for electrification; the mechanical feasibility considering all engineering 
possibilities and problems; and the financial feasibility, whether the cost 
is prohibitive and the results commensurate with the cost. 



122 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Electric railroads are often called an experiment for heavy freight 
and passenger service. The following railroads are exceptions: 

New York, New Haven & Hartford, in trunk-line service. 

New York Central, in heavy switching and terminal wcTrk. 

Hudson & Manhattan Railroad, in tunnel and suburban service. 

New York Subway for 10-car trains, in real rapid transit. 

Pennsylvania Railroad, in heaviest terminal service. 

Long Island Railroad, for dense main- line traffic. 

West Jersey & Seashore Railroad, for heaviest passenger service 
between Camden and Atlantic City, on a double-track, 65-mile road. 

Baltimore & Ohio, in heaviest freight traffic thru a tunnel. 

Baltimore & Annapolis Short Line, for common railroad service. 

All elevated roads, including the Manhattan Elevated, formerly one 
of the largest steam roads in the country. 

Albany Southern Railroad, for freight and passenger work. 

W^est Shore Railroad, between Utica and Syracuse. 

Erie Railroad, on its Rochester-Mt. Morris Division. 

Michigan Central Railroad, for all Detroit River tunnel trains. 

Grand Trunk Railway, for traffic thru the Sarnia Tunnel and grades. 

The thru interurban roads of Ohio, Indiana, and New York. 

Chicago, Lake Shore & South Bend Railway, for excellent traffic. 

Aurora, Elgin & Chicago Railroad, for high-speed rapid transit. 

Chicago, & Milwaukee Electric Railroad, for 2-car train service. 

Illinois Traction Company, for general freight work and for sleeping 
car service between St. Louis and Peoria, 172 miles. 

Colorado & Southern, for heavy work on grades near Denver. 

Spokane & Inland Empire Railroad, freight and passenger service. 

Great Northern Railway, for a tunnel on a heavy grade. 

Puget Sound Electric Railway, for 3-car passenger train service. 

Southern Pacific Company, for suburban traffic near San Francisco. 

Huntington roads in California, for heavy trains. 

Lancashire & Yorkshire Railway, between Liverpool, Southport, and 
Crossens, 82 miles of single track, for a large amount of ordinary suburban 
and terminal service, much like that of the Illinois Central Railroad. 

North-Eastern Railway, of England, 82 miles of track for excellent 
service with electric trains, in both freight and passenger traffic. 

Central London Railway, which carries 60,000,000 passengers per 
year and operates 3-car trains on less than a 3-minute headway. 

London, Brighton & South Coast Railway, on 62 miles of 2- to 7-track 
road, in heavy suburban service. 

Paris Subway, which has heavier service than the New York Inter- 
borough. 

Paris-Orleans Railway, between the Quai d'Orsay and Orleans 



ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 123 

station^ where all main-line and overland trains are hauled by electric 
locomotives. 

Bernese-Alps Railroad, with heavy thru freight and passenger trains. 

Valtellina Railway, of Italy, for light freight and passenger service. 

Giovi Railway of Italy, for heaviest freight service with twenty-five 
2000-h. p. locomotives, on heavy mountain grades. 

A luxury which the people must pay for is an objection given at Boston; 
but electric transportation history shows that when the capital has been 
wisely invested for improved motive power on electric roads the people 
are willing to pay for it; and they have usually furnished such an increase 
in passenger and freight traffic, and in gross and net earnings, that the 
improvements were not paid for by any increase in rates. 

The financial problem is reduced to this: Will electric traction for 
heavy railway service be capable of earning a greater percentage of 
interest on the invested capital? 

In general, it is practical for electric traction to supersede steam 
traction only where scientific reasons and technical judgment make it 
clear that the physical adva7itages, capacity, flexibility, simplicity, and 
safety will produce a definite commercial advantage. 

Electric traction may be used to prevent or to meet competition, to 
promote traffic, or to improve the welfare or civic conditions of a city. 
In special cases, efficient and economical operation may not be para- 
mount, yet even here there must be some financial necessity. 

In the business world electric traction is not a matter of sentiment, 
policy, safety, or cleanliness except when these produce, for the whole 
railway, greater financial returns. 

LITERATURE. 

References on Physical and Financial Advantages of Electric Traction. 

Crosby: Limitations of Steam and Electricity in Transportation, A. I. E. E., May, 

1890; E. E., May 28, 1890. 
Sprague: Elevated and Suburban Problems, A. I. E. E., June, 1892; May, 1897. 

Multiple-Unit Systems, A. I. E. E., May, 1899; S. R. J., May 4, 1901. 

Facts and Problems on Electric Trunk-line Operation, A. I. E. E., May, 1907. 
Baxter: Electricity to Supplant Steam Locomotives on Trunk Railways. Electrical 

Engineer, Feb. 19, 1896 (excellent article). 
Boynton: Electric Traction Under Steam Railway Conditions (N. Y. N. H. & H.), 

A. I. E. E., Feb., 1900; S. R. J., May 14, 1904. 
Burch: Electric Traction for Heavy Railway Service, Northwest Ry. Club, Jan., 

1901; S. Ry. Rev., Jan., 1901; S. R. J., March 9 and 30, 1901. 
Potter: Developments in Electric Traction, N. Y. R. R. Club, Jan., 1905; S. R. J., 

Jan. 28, 1905; A. I. E. E , June, 1902. 
Stillwell: Electric Traction Under Steam Road Conditions, S. R. J., Oct. 8, 1904; 

A. I. E. E., Jan., 1907. 
White: Arnold: Siemens: International Elec. Cong., St. Louis, Sept., 1904, S. R. J., 

Oct. 29, 1904. 



124 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

De Muralt: Heavy Traction Problems in Electric Engineering, A. I. E. E., June, 1905, 

p. 525; S. R. J., May, 1903. 
Smith, W. N.: Practical Aspects of Steam Railroad Electrification. A. I. E. E., 

Nov., 1904; Dec, 1907. 
McHenry: Advantages of Electric Traction, S. R. J., Aug., 17, 1907. 
Carter: Technical Considerations, Inst, of Elec. Eng'rs., Jan. 25, 1906, 
Street: Electricity on Steam Railroads, Western Ry, Club, May, 1905; S. R. J., May 

27, 1905. 
Vreeland: Problems on the Electrified Steam Road, S. R. J., June 25, 1904. 
Brinckerhoff : Elevated Railways and Heavy Electric Traction, S. R. J., Oct. 20, 

1906; N. W. Elev. R. R. results, A. I. E. E., Jan. 25, 1907. 
Harriman: On Electric Traction, E. W., March 16, 1907, p. 538. 
Darlington: Substitution of Electric Power for Steam on American Railroads, Eng. 

Mag., Sept., 1909; Financial Aspects, Feb., 1910. 
Fowler: Value of Electrification to Railroads, E. W., March 21, 1908. 
Electrification of Steam Railroads, New York R. R. Club, annual discussion at the 

March meeting. 
See literature on Characteristics of Electric Locomotives, Chapter VII. 



NOTES 125 



CHAPTER IV. 
ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION. 

Outline. 
Classification. 
Direct-current Systems : 

Generation as three-phase current, transmission at high voltage, transfor- 
mation to low voltage, conversion to direct-current, substation with attend- 
ants along route, 600 and 1200 volts, one overhead trolley, third-rail contact 
line, two-wire circuits, three-wire circuits, polyphase generation, motor- 
generators, 1200 volts from converters, converters vs. motor-generators, 
mercury gas rectifiers. 

Three-phase System: 

Generation and transmission, number of substations, two overhead trolleys, 
750, 3000, 6000 volts, 15, 25, 60 cycles, transformation at substations or on 
locomotives. 

Single -phase Systems: 

Generation, single- or three-phase; transformation if required for transmission, 
substations if required, no attendants, one overhead trolley, 600, 3000, 6000, 
11,000, 15,000 volts, 15, 25, 60 cycles. 

Combinations of Electric Systems : 

Leonard-Oerlikon, direct-current single-phase, three-phase direct-current, 
single-phase, three-phase, direct single-phase, three-phase, single-phase 
rectifier plan, gas-electric plan, storage batteries. 

Interchangeable or Universal Systems . 

Relative Advantages of Each System : 

Generating equipment, power transmission, railway motor equipment, cost 
of complete equipment, operation and maintenance. 

Conclusions and Opinions. 

Literature. 



12C 



CHAPTER IV. 

ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION. 
CLASSIFICATION. 

The development of electric traction systems preceded an extensive 
use of electric power for railway train service. The progress made 
between 1890 and 1910 will be outlined, and a summary of the present 
status of each system will precede the details of the development. 

Commercial systemis are first classified. 

Direct-current, 600, 1200, 1500, or 2000 volts. 

Three-phase, alternating-current, 3000 or 6000 volts. 

Single-phase, alternating-current, 3000, 6000, 11,000, or 15,000 volts. 

Combinations of these three systems; their use with current rectifiers; 
their use with steam or gasoline power, etc. 

The choice of an electric system is necessary in every electrification, 
and obviously, each system has its advantages. The final choice, often 
a compromise, is influenced by existing systems, by manufacturers' 
standards, by financial interest, and by the real needs of the situation. 

Essential features which should receive consideration are: 

Service — trolley, interurban railway, or railroad. 

Traffic — density, frequency, weight of individual trains. 

Power characteristics — source, cycles, conversion, transformation. 

Power plant load factor — the effect of diversity of load on economy 
when heavy individual train loads are widely separated. 

Cost of electrical equipment — motor cars and locomotives, feeders 
and contact lines, and substations. 

Cost of maintenance — substation equipment, transmissions, and 
motors per ton-mile or per passenger-mile. 

Distance between stops, and total distance, are not essential features. 

DIRECT-CURRENT SYSTEM FOR RAILWAYS. 

Direct -current systems now have the following status: With a 
potential between the trolley or the third-rail and the track rails, direct- 
current at 600 volts is used by all street railways, most of the interurban 
railways; the New York City terminals of the New York Central, the 
New Haven, the Pennsylvania, and the Long Island Railroads; also for 
one important tunnel where there are heavy grades on the Baltimore & 
Ohio, and one on the Michigan Central Railroad. The only example in 
common long-distance passenger-train service is on the West Jersey and 
Seashore Railroad, a 65-mile road between Camden and Atlantic City. 

127 



128 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

All subway lines, elevated roads, and terminal railways, in local passenger 
service, have adopted the direct-current, 60D-volt, third-rail system. 

Direct current at 1200 volts is now usedby 14 American interurban 
railways, and by 7 European railways. No railroad yet uses 1200 volts 
for train service, except the Southern Pacific, with an overhead trolley, 
for its suburban work, partly on city streets, in and near Berkeley and 
Oakland, California. 

Direct current when used by railroads at low voltages requires an 
excessive investment and a large loss in the transmission, conversion, 
and transformation of the electrical energy. Direct current at 1200 
to 2000 volts allows an increase in the length of the electrical zone, 
since the loss in the local contact line is reduced. 

The generation of energy, for the direct-current, 600- or 1200-volt 
system, for railway-train service, is not as direct current, but as three- 
phase alternating current; the latter is generally transmitted at high 
voltage, then transformed to low voltage, and then changed by rotary 
machinery to direct current, at 600 or 1200 volts, in substations along 
the route of the railway. 

OUTLINE OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF DIRECT-CURRENT SYSTEMS. 

Generation, transmission, and utilization of direct current came first. 
The development began with 75 volts, was soon 200, and, by the year 
1895, had increased to 600 volts, a standard which is now used by over 
95 per cent, of the street, interurban, and elevated railways of this country. 

The 1200-volt, direct-current, two-wire system, first tried in 1907, 
requires that the insulation be doubled at generators, trolley wires, con- 
trollers, motor-windings, and commutators. Voltages which are higher 
than 600 volts are not used across the commutators of railway motors or 
rotary converters. At the substations, two 600-volt generators, or 
two 600-volt rotary converters are connected in series. On the cars, 
two 600-volt, interpole-type motors, each insulated for 1200 volts, are 
connected in series, and each pair is arranged for series-parallel operation. 

Central California Traction Company is the exception. It uses four 1200-volt, 
G. E., No. 205 motors, rated 75 h. p. each, for 35-ton passenger cars. In the city 
streets, 600 volts are used; on the right-of-way current is collected at 1200 volts, 
from a 40-pound third-rail. This road has 7 motor cars. 

A table which follows, on the development at higher direct-current 
voltages since 1904, shows that about 20 small railways in Europe have 
adopted the two-wire 750- to 2000-volt direct-current system. 

Three-wire systems are those in which the track is used as a neutral 
line, not for the return of the main current. Track feeders and bonding 
may be reduced. Electrolytic troubles may be done away with. The 



ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 129 

full advantage of the three-wire system is realized when the load on the 
two sides is balanced, and the minimum current is returned via the neutral 
or tracks. A balance of the load on the feeders can be obtained by 
splitting the various sections and dividing the grades or heavy service 
portions of the line, by means of double-throw switches. 

The three-wire, direct-current system, with 600 volts between the trolley and the 
track, was used for a short time, in 1894, by W. C. Gotshall, at St. Louis, on a road 
with 250 cars. The S3^stem was also used in Portland, Oregon, and in Pittsburg; 
see St. Ry. Journ., July, 1899, p. 426. City and South London, see St. Ry. Journ., 
Aug. 16, 1902, p. 229. With the introduction of three-phase, high-voltage trans- 
missions, about 1896, the use of 1200-volt, three-wire systems decreased rapidly. 

Within the past ten years the two-wire and the three-wire 1200-volt 
system has again received serious consideration, as is shown below. 



DIRECT-CURRENT RAILWAYS USING 750 TO 2000 VOLTS. EUROPEAN. 



Name of railway or 
location. 



Name of 
country. 



Installa- 
tion by. 



Voltage. 



Mile- 



Reference or notes. 



City & South London. . 
Grenoble-Charpareillan . 
Iselle Mining District . . . 
St. Georges- La Mure.. . 



Paris North-South 

Mozelle-Maizieres Saint 
Marie. 

Villefranche-Bourg Mad- 
ame 

Cologne-Bonn 

Berlin Elevated 

Castellamare 

A.nhalt Coal 

Stuttgart-Dagerloch 



Hamburg City 

Salzberg Tramway. . 

Nuremberg 

Berchtesgaden 

Vienna City 

Tabor- Bechyne, . . . 

Trient-Male 

Montreux-Bernois.. . 
Bellinzona-Mesocco . 
Brian tae Electric. . . 
Bresciana Electric. . 



England . . 
France. . . . 
France. . . . 
France. . . . 

France .... 
France. . . . 

France. . . . 

Germany . 
Germany. . 
Germany. . 
Germany . 
Germany. . 



Germany. . 
Germany. . 
Germany 
Austria . . 
Austria... 
Austria . . , 
Austria . . . 
Swiss. . . , 

Swiss 

Italy 

Italy 



Thury . . 
Thury . . 
Thury . . 

Thury . . 
Siemens 

Alioth . 

Siemens. 
Siemens. 
Siemens. 
Siemens. 
Siemens. 



A.E.G ... 



Krizik. . 
Krizik. . 



Alioth . . . 
Rieter . . 
Gen. Elec. 
Gen. Elec. 



500* 
600* 
2,000 
1,200* 

750* 
2,000 

850 

990 
750 
825 
900 
800 

800 

900 

550* 

1,000 

1,500* 

700* 

800 

850 

1,500 

1,200 

1,200 



15 
26 



20 

4 
9 

34 

18 
16 
12 
4 
18 



13 
8 
18 
16 
40 
39 
19 
16 
33 



Electric Review, Feb. 13, 1909. 
E. R. J., Oct. 31, 1903. 
55-ton, 550-h.p. locomotive 
To be changed to 2 400- volt, 

two-wire. 
London Elect., Dec. 9, 1910. 
Described in Chapter VIII. 
Third-rail line. 



S.R.J., May 2, 1908. 



Shunt motors. Regeneration. 



Year 1909. 

1909. 

S.R.J. , July 1, 1905, 

Nine 120-h.p. cars. 

S.R.J., Nov. 3, 1906. 

S.R.J., Dec. 10, 1904. 



15. 



S.R.J., Nov. 13, 1909. 
S.R.J., Nov. 4, 1905. 



18 cars; 45-h.p. motors. 



* The star indicates that the three-wire system is used. 

The voltage given is that between the trolley and the rail. 

Complications are experienced with lighting, comprrasor, controller, and contactor circuits. 

Four 550-volt motors are used in series, on 2000 volts. Series-parallel control is abandoned. 

The road^ listed are city or interurban trolley lines. 



130 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

DIRECT-CURRENT RAILWAYS USING 1500 VOLTS. AMERICAN. 



Name of railway. 


Mile- 
age. 


Equip- 
ment. 


Motor 
h.p. 


Elec. Ry. Jour, 
reference. 


Piedmont & Northern ... 


125 


23 MC 


4-90 
4-14L 


May 20, 1911, p. 885. 





Ten 500-kw. motor-generator sets are to be used. Locomotives weigh 55 tons 
and will haul 800-ton freight trains on long steep grades between Charlotte, N. C, 
and Greenwood, S. C. Westinghouse equipment is used. 



DIRECT-CURRENT RAILWAYS USING 1200 VOLTS. AMERICAN. 



Name of railway. 


Mile- 
age. 


Motor 
cars. 


Motor 
h.p. 


Elec. Ry. Journal 
references. 


Indianapolis & Louisville .... 


42 

77 

2 

49 

35 
25 

68 

24 
12 

5 

9 
60 

52 

20 
70 

550 


10 
16 

2 
10 

65 
39 
15 
15 

4 
2 
1 

6 

7 
30 

3 
10 

2 


4-75 
4-75 
4-75 
4-75 

4-125 


Jan. 4, 1908, p. 4. 
Jan. 16, 1909, p. 92 
July 13, 1907. 
April 17, 1909, p. 738. 

Feb. 4, 1911. 


Pittsburg, Harmony, Butler & New C . 
California Midland 


Central California Traction 

Stockton-Lodi, third-rail. 
Southern Pacific Co., Oakland, Cal. . 
San Jose & Santa Clara, California . . 


Milwaukee Electric Ry . . . 


4-125 
4-75 

4-75 
4-50 
4-75 
4-50 

4-50 
4-75 
4-125 
4-50 

4-75 


March 13, 1909,p.460. 
July 16, 1910, p. 102. 

Sept. 3, 1910. 


Waukesha Beach to Watertown. 

St. Martins to East Troy. 

St. Martins to Burhngton. 
Southern Cambria Ry., Johnstown, Pa. 
Aroostook Valley R. R., Maine 




Albuquerque Traction Co., N. M . . . 

Sapulpa, Oklahoma Interurban 

Washington, Baltimore & Annapohs 

Shore Line Electric Ry., New Haven 

Meriden, Middleton & Guilford, Conn. 


3-wire system. Aban- 
doned in 1907. 


See single-phase roads. 

Dec. 4, 1909, p. 1133. 
May 20, 1911. 


Fort Dodge, Des Moines & Southern. . 
Total — 14 roads 


6 

4 

247 


4-75 
4-125 


Jan. 14, 1911, p. 81. 







Equipment for the above trolley line lines was furnished by the General Electric 
Company, which had advocated the 1200- volt system since 1908, when it abandoned 
the manufacture of single-phase series-compensated and series-repulsion motors. 



ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 131 

General Electric Company's annual report, January, 1909, stated: 
"The continued successful operation of our 1200-volt direct-current 
railway apparatus fully demonstrates the reliability of this most valuable 
system, which fulfils the requirements of railway companies for extensions 
and for interurban service beyond the economical limits of 600-volt dis- 
tribution, avoiding the complication incidental to single-phase, alterna- 
ting current equipments when operated over direct-current lines." 

''Prior to January, 1911, over 85,000 h. p. of 1200-volt direct-current 
G. E. motor equipment was in service or on order." 

DIRECT -CURRENT SYSTEM, WITH POLYPHASE GENERATION. 

Generation and transmission of three-phase current at 60, 35, or 25 
cycles, at high voltages, and its utilization, after its transformation, and 
its conversion by rotary converters, to direct current at 600 volts, at many 
substations, for electric railway service, was an important development. 
A historical outline is presented.- 

DEVELOPMENT OF POLYPHASE CURRENT FOR DIRECT-CURRENT 

RAILWAYS. 

Taftsville, Conn., 2500 volts, 300 h. p., 3.5 miles, 1894. 

One 50-cycle synchronous motor, belted to a 250-k. w. railway generator, was 
installed by the Baltic Power Company, under the direction of Dr. Louis Bell 
and Mr. H. E. Raymond, and furnished power to about 16 cars on 16 miles of 
road, for the Norwich Street Railway. 

Lowell, Mass., 5500 volts, 800 h. p., 15 miles, 1895. 

This is said to be the first three-phase transmission plant with direct-current 
converters. Four 75-k. w., 900 r. p. m., 30-cycle converters were installed 
for railway work. The power was used by the Lowell & Suburban Street 
Railway. 

Portland, Oregon, 6000 volts, 2000 h. p., 13 miles, 1895. 

Two 450-k. w. rotary converters on a 33-cycle, three-phase circuit were used 
for railway work. The cycles were adapted for rotary converters and also 
for the arc and incandescent lighting service of this pioneer company. Dr. 
Louis Bell, S. R. J., Sept., 1898, calls this the first railway converter installation. 

Sacramento, California, 11,000 volts, 3000 h. p., 23 miles, 1895. 
Two 60-cycle synchronous motors ran railway generators. 

Fresno, California, 19,000 volts, 900 h. p., 35 miles, 1895. 
A 60-cycle motor ran a railway generator. 

Bakersfield, California, 10,000 volts, 1000 h. p., 12 miles, 1896. 
One 100-k. w., 60-cycle synchronous converter was used. 

Niagara Falls, N. Y., 11,000 volts, 3000 h.p., 21 miles, 1896. 22,000 volts, 6,000 h.p. 
21 miles, 1899. 60,000 volts, 14,000 h.p., 160 miles, 1907. Two 450-kilowatt, 
600-volt, 25-cycle converters, placed in service at Niagara Falls, and at 
Buffalo, in 1896, were quite successful. They marked a decided improvement 
over 60-cycle converters, most of which, up to the year 1902, were failures. 

Minneapolis, Minn., 13,200 volts, 4000 h. p., 9 miles, 1897. 

Electric power aggregating 4200 k. w. was transmitted to three substations in 



132 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Minneapolis and St. Paul, entirely underground, in three-phase, paper-insulated 

cables. Six 600-k.w., 35-cycle railway converters were placed in service. 

The engineering work was carried out by the writer. 
Mechanicsville, N. Y., 12,000 volts, 5000 h. p., 14 miles, 1898. 

Use of 38-cycle power for electric railway at Schenectady. 
Helena, Montana, 45,000 volts, 8000 h.p., 57 miles, 1898. 

Two 60-cycle, 300-k.w. converters were used in Butte. 
Redlands, California, 33,000 volts, 4000 h. p., 80 miles, 1898. 

One 100-k.w., 50-cycle converter was used at Los Angeles. 
Chicago & Milwaukee Railroad, 5500 volts, 650 h.p., 9 miles, 1899. 

Four 125-k.w., 25-cycle converters were used. E. W., Apr. 8, 1899. 
Union Traction Company, 22,000 volts, 4000 h.p., 30 miles, 1900. 

This was for a modern interurban railway in Indiana. 
Snoqualmie Falls Company, 33,000 volts, 8000 h. p., 40 miles, 1900. 

Four 60-cycle, railway rotary converters were used in Seattle and Tacoma. 
Metropolitan Street Railway, N. Y., 6600 volts, 15,000 h. p., 1901. 

This became at once the largest installation. Twenty-six 900- k. w. converters 

were installed. The use of 25 cycles was now established. 

GENERATORS FOR 1200- TO 1500- VOLT, DIRECT-CURRENT SYSTEM. 

1 200 -volt .rotary converters are not used for heavy railroad work. 
At the present state of the development, two 600-volt generators or two 
rotary converters are operated in series, in 1200- to 1500-volt systems. 
The generators are designed as follows: 

1. Large interpoles are used, which are far below saturation until a 
very heavy overload is reached; and the poles must be so proportioned 
that they will follow any sudden change in load. The interpole coils must 
not be shunted with resistance or impedance, otherwise they will not be 
effective on short circuit. The danger from a heavy rush of current due 
to short circuit will always be greater in 1200-volt railway systems than 
in a 600-volt system. The danger from flashing at the 600-volt commu- 
tator is also large where two generators operate in series as one unit; for, 
if either commutator should flash in case of a short circuit, then 1200 
volts are thrown across the other commutator to flash that commutator; 
and the disturbance is liable to flash the other machines in the same sub- 
station and do much more damage than in the case of 600-volt service. 
In a rotary converter, commutating poles can seldom be made large 
enough for short-circuit conditions. 

2. A large number of commutator bars are used between neutral points 
or brushes, to decrease the flashing tendency in case of a short circuit, as 
with ordinary 600-volt generators; but 600-volt converters flash viciously 
on a short circuit, regardless of the number of commutator bars per pole; 
and what is safe in a generator will not prevent trouble in a converter. 

3. Standard direct-current generator designs are used for the magnetic 
field structure. This design embraces a cast iron field yoke and laminated 
poles, When a short circuit occurs or flashing exists across the brushes. 



ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 133 

the fields are quickly demagnetized. In rotary converters the yokes are 
of steel, which have about four times the conductivity of cast iron for sec- 
ondary currents, and the pole faces are solid and provided with dampers. 
This standard design, which is necessary for converters, allows heavy 
secondary currents to be induced, and these tend to maintain the mag- 
netization and current during flashing or short circuit. The converter 
is tied to the alternating-current system which can feed excessive cur- 
rent to the commutator; and further, after the alternating-current cir- 
cuit breaker opens, the flashing with the reduced direct-current field is 
found to be decidedly severe. The converter may even pull out of the 
service and drop back again with reversed polarity. This makes in 
all a relatively bad showing for a converter in case trouble arises. 
Naturally more short circuits will arise from railway motor flashing and 
from break-down of insulation with 1200-volt than with 600-volt circuits 
Mercury-arc or other types of rectifiers, placed at frequent intervals 
along the line may be developed, to do away with rotating apparatus 
and attendants at substations. 

THREE-PHASE ALTERNATING -CURRENT SYSTEMS FOR RAILWAYS. 

Three-phase systems have the following status: With 3000 or 6000 
volts and with 15 and 25 cycles, they are used by three railroads in Europe 
and one in America, for heavy railway train service. The four roads are 
here described briefly. 

1. Three lines of the Italian State Railway: 

Valtellina, with 67 miles of main track between Lecco, Sondrio, and 
Chiavenna, was electrified in 1902, for operation with two 3000-volt 
trolleys. The equipment, built by Ganz, includes ten 58-ton, 300-h.p. 
motor cars with coaches and six locomotives. Five to six trains are 
in service at one time. This road is being extended 25 miles to Milan. 

Giovi Line, north of Genoa, with 13 miles of double track, and 3.5 per 
cent, ruling grades, including a 2.6 mile tunnel with a 2.9 per cent, grade, 
was equipped in 1909 with the 15-cycle, 3000-volt, three-phase system. 
The equipment built by Westinghouse includes twenty 67-ton, 2000-h. p. 
locomotives, which are used in pairs to haul 420-ton trains, at 14 or 28 
m. p. h., up 2 . 9 per cent, grades. The service is the heaviest in Europe. 

Savona-Ceva, or Savona-San Giuseppe Line, 13 miles long, in service 
since 1909, uses 10 locomotives similar to the Giovi. 

Mt. Cenis Tunnel, between France and Italy, built in 1910, was 
equipped with 10 locomotives similar to the Giovi. 

2. Swiss Federal Railway equipped its Simplon Tunnel and terminal 
yards, 14 miles of road, in 1907, with the 15-cycle, 3000-volt, three-phase 
system. The equipment, manufactured by Brown, Boveri & Company, 



134 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

includes three locomotives, for hauling 730-ton freight trains, at 22 m. p. h. , 
on 0.7 per cent, grades. 

In the installations noted above, the 3000 volts are used directly on 
the motor field windings. 

3. Santa Fe-Gergal road, in southwestern Spain, a mountain road, 15 
miles long, uses five 320-h. p., three-phase, 15-cycle locomotives, built 
by Brown, Boveri & Company. 

4. Great Northern Railway electrified, in 1909, 4 miles of main track 
and 2 miles of terminal track, at the Cascade tunnel, in Washington, 
using the 6000-volt, three-phase, 25-cycle system. The equipment 
consists of four 115-ton, 1700-h. p. locomotives which haul 1800-ton 
trailing loads up the 1.7 per cent, grade at one speed — 15 m. p. h. 

The complication of the necessary double overhead contact wires had 
debarred this system from all high-speed interurban railways, and from 
large railroad switching yards. 

OUTLINE ON DEVELOPMENT OF THREE-PHASE SYSTEM FOR 

RAILWAYS. 

Generation, transmission, transformation, and use of three-phase 
current at 15 and 25 cycles, and at 3000 and 6000 volts, followed the 
direct-current system, for railway train service. 

Alternators, with revolving fields and large transformers for high 
voltages, had been developed in Europe by 1896. Three-phase induction 
motors, with and without collector rings, had been developed by Tesla 
and others, and the time had come for the development of a new system 
to utilize and adapt this equipment for heavy railroading. 

Siemens & Halske exhibited at Chicago Exposition, in 1893, a three- 
phase, 600-volt, 50-cycle, 1400 r. p. m., 11 to 1 geared, railway motor, 
which had been used on an experimental track at Charlottenburg. 

Brown, Boveri & Company equipped a street railway in Lugano, 
Italy, in 1896; three mountain railways in Switzerland, in 1898; and an 
interurban line between Burgdorf and Thun, 26 miles, in 1899. The 
voltages used were from 500 to 750. 

Ganz Electric Company installed this system for railway service 
between London and Port Stanley, Ontario, 27 miles, in 1905. Two 
1100-volt, 65-h. p. motors were used per motor car. Trailers were hauled. 
The line loss was heavy, and, on the grades at the ends of lines, the motors 
simply died down or fell out, when overloaded, because of lack of draw- 
bar pull. Had additional transformer stations been installed, the motor 
trouble would have been avoided; but this experience showed that, with 
the low voltage necessarily used with a two-trolley, three-phase system, 
substations must be frequent. St. Ry. Journ., Dec. 9, 1905, p. 1026. 

Ganz Electric Company must, however, be credited with the first real 



ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 135 

advance in the application of the three-phase system for railroads. 
Its initial electrification was in 1902 for the Italian State Railway. The 
number of cycles used was 15, which was advantageous for the motors. 
The voltage between the 2 trolleys and the rails was 3000, which 
voltage has not since been exceeded in Europe. It is a safe pressure for 
collecting devices from 2 overhead conductors which must be insulated 
from each other in railroad switching yards, terminals, and bridges; and 
for the controller and motor wiring; and it is safe for stator and rotor 
windings of motors on locomotives, but not on motor cars. The 3000- 
volt three-phase installation required substations 6 miles apart. 

Berlin-Zossen tests, made at Berlin in 1903, for the study of high 
speeds on railways used the three-phase system. Speeds up to 130 
m. p. h. were obtained. Experimental motor-car equipments built by 
Allgemeine Elektricitats-Gesellschaft and by Siemens-Schuckert were 
designed for 10,000 volts, and 50 cycles. The overhead construction, 
with three 10,000-volt trolley wires in a vertical plane, would not be 
practical in railroading. 

Brown, Boveri & Company, in 1907, equipped the Simplon Tunnel. 

Westinghouse Company of Italy, in 1909 and 1910, equipped the 
Giovi, Savona-Ceva, and Mt. Cenis Tunnel roads as detailed. 

Technical descriptions of all locomotives are given later. 



THREE-PHASE RAILROADS— EQUIPMENT AND MILEAGE. 



Name of railroad. 

age. 


Locomo- 
tives. 


H.P. per 
locomotive. 


Cycles 
used. 


Trolley 
voltage. 


Burgdorf-Thun 26 

Italian State: 

Valtellina 70 

1 

Giovi 38 

Savona-Ceva i 13 

Mt. Cenis Tunnel 5 

Swiss Federal : 

Simplon 1906 14 

1909 


3 

2 

2 

2 

20 

10 

10 

2 
2 
5 
4 


300 
600 
1200 
1500 
1980 
1980 
1980 

1100 

1700 

320 

1700 


40 

15 

15 
15 
15 

16 
16 
15 
25 


750 

3000 

3000 
3000 
3000 

3000 
3000 • 


Santa Fe-Gergal 15 

Great Northern 6 


5500 
6000 



Street railways and rack and pinion railways are not listed. 

Burgdorf-Thun Railway has six 60-h.p. motor cars, each of which hauls one or 
two coaches. Valtellina Railway has ten 300-h.p. motor cars. 

Great Northern locomotive rating is 1900-h.p. with forced draft. The motor 
voltage is only 500. In the European motor-car and locomotive installations, the 
full trolley voltage is used directly on the motor fields. 



136 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

SINGLE-PHASE ALTERNATING -CURRENT SYSTEMS FOR RAILWAYS. 

Single -phase systems now have the following status: They are used 
with 3000 to 11,000 volts, and 15- and 25-cycle alternating currents for 
many interurban roads and particularly for the haulage of heavy indi- 
vidual train units in trunk-line work. In America, the 11,000-volt, 25- 
cycle system was selected, in 1906, by the New. Haven road for the electri- 
fication of its New York-New Haven Division, 73 miles. The first half, 
to Stamford, is now in successful operation, and plans have been devel- 
oped for its use in all freight and passenger work for the balance of the 
division. The single-phase system is also employed by these other roads : 
Rochester branch of the Erie Railroad, which has used 11,000 volts since 
1907; Indianapolis and Cincinnati line, 116 miles, since 1904; Baltimore 
& Annapolis Short Line, 35 miles; Spokane & Inland Empire Railroad 
which, since 1906, has used 6000 volts for ordinary freight and passenger 
service over 162 miles of track; Visalia Division of the Southern Pacific 
Railway; Denver-Boulder branch of the Colorado & Southern Railroad; 
Rock Island-Galesburg Division, 52 miles, of the Rock-Island Southern 
Railroad; and Grand Trunk Railway, for the Sarnia-Port Huron tunnel, 
where 41 freight and passenger trains per day are hauled thru the yards 
and up the 2 per cent, grades in the tunnel. 

In Europe, the single-phase system has been adopted by these roads: 
Swedish State Railways; Midland Railway of England; London, Brighton 
& South Coast; Bavarian State Railway; Mariazell Railroad; Blank- 
enese-Hamburg-Ohlsdorf, and other lines of the Prussian State Railway; 
Rotterdam-Hague-Scheveningen Railway; Weisental Railway; Bernese- 
Alps Railway; and Midi or Southern Railway of France. The freight 
and passenger equipment is tabulated in the tables which follow, and 
the locomotive equipment is described in Chapter X. 

OUTLINE OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF SINGLE-PHASE SYSTEMS. 

Generation, transmission, and utilization of single -phase, alternating- 
current, at 15 and 25 cycles is a recent development. 

In September, 1902, at an A. I. E. E. meeting, Mr. B. G. Lamme 
presented a paper which advocated the use of single-phase alternating- 
current for railways. The details of the new system had been developed 
by the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company, of Pittsburg. 
This system marked a great advance in the struggle against the economic 
limitations imposed by the direct-current system on the transfer and 
distribution of power to widely separated, heavy, individual train units. 
Heretofore there had been heavy transformation and conversion losses, 
also an excessive cost for substation equipment, maintenance, and 
feeders. 



ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 137 

Many engineers had been working along this line, the objects of their 
study being: 

1. An alternating-current system for electric railways. 

2. Prevention of electrolysis of rail-base metal, water-supply pipes, 
and of lead casing of the underground feeders, the maintenance of which, 
and of the track bonding, was excessive. 

3. Single-phase feeders from three-phase generators, with a lower 
investment in feeders for suburban lines and branches of steam railroads. 

4. Elimination of the rotary-converter substations. 

5. Single-phase motors, without commutators, for railways. 

The writer conducted many experiments on a single-phase system in 1898. 
He was then electrical engineer for the Twin City Rapid Transit Company, which 
operated 250 miles of electric road in and between Minneapolis and St. Paul. The 
power system then used was the best. Alternating three-phase current, at 13,200 
volts, was transmitted from an 8000-h.p. central station to four substations, each 
containing from one to three 600-k.w. rotary converters. There were heavy losses 
in large 660- volt, direct-current feeders, and substation maintenance was expensive. 
Experiments were made in Minneapolis. Power was obtained from a 175-kw., 
10-cycle, 380- volt, single-phase alternator. (A 660- volt, direct-current, bipolar 
Edison railway generator was used, and two collector rings slipped over the com- 
mutator, were properly connected and insulated.) Power was fed to an ordinary 
trolley line. Two 15-h.p. Sprague, 600-volt, series, direct-current, "standard" 
street railway motors were used on an ordinary street car. These direct-current 
motors were used on the single-phase, alternating-current circuit. 

The results from these motors were of course disappointing. The inductive 
effects with the solid wrot iron fields, the 812 turns of No. 12 wire in series on the two 
field coils, and the long air gaps, so reduced the input, that the torque and the output 
of the motor were practically nil. "Weight efficiency" was certainly bad. Sparking 
and heating existed at the commutator, at any position of the brushes, from the 
e. m. f. induced by the armature coils short-circuited by the brushes. 

Allgemeine Elektricitats Gesellschaft in 1903 used single-phase motors on a 
public road at Spindlersfield, near Berlin. 

Mr. B. J. Arnold^ of Chicago, experimented in 1903 with a single-phase, alter- 
nating current motor combined with an air compressor. A. I. E. E. proceedings, 
June, 1902, p. 1003. See locomotive drawings. Western Electrician, Jan. 2, 1904; 
E. E., 1904, p. 83. 

Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company placed the first single-phase 
system and single-phase railway motor equipment in commercial service in December, 
1904, on the Indianapolis & Cincinnati Traction Company's Interurban line. The 
original 82 miles of track were soon increased to 116 miles. 

Four years later there were 1000 miles of single-phase road, equipped with 246 
motor cars and 64 electric locomotives, with a capacity of 137,000 h.p. in railway 
motors. In Europe there were approximately 900 miles in service in December, 
1908; and at that date over 250,000 h.p. in single-phase railway motors had been 
sold in America and in Europe. This represents a most wonderful development. 

The installations to the present year are Usted. The data were collected by 
visits, by correspondence, and from descriptive items in technical papers. 



138 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



SINGLE-PHASE RAILWAYS, 


25-CYCLE, SERIES-COMPENSATED 




MOTORS. AMERICAN. 








Name of railway. 


Year 
opend. 


Mile- 
age. 


Trolley 
voltage. 


A.C. 
D.C. 


Equip- 
ment. 


Motor 
h. p. 


Westinghouse : 














Indianapolis & Cincinnati 


1904 


112 


3,300 


Yes 


25 MC 


4-100 


Westmoreland County Trac- 


1905 


7 


1,200 


No 


4 MC 


4- 50 


tion, Derby to Latrobe, Pa. . . 














San Francisco, Vallejo & Napa 


1905 


34 


3,300 


No 


9 MC 


4-100 


Valley, California. 










2 MC 


2- 75 


Warren & Jamestown 


1905 


26 


3,300 


No 


6 MC 


4- 50 


Long Island R. R. : 














Sea Cliff Division. 


1905 


6 


2,200 


No 


6 MC 


2- 50 


Spokane & Inland Empire R.R. 


1906 
1908 
1910 
1907 


162 


6,600 


Yes 


25 MC 
6 L 
8 L 
4 MC 


4-100 
4-125 










4-170 


Fort Wayne & Springfield 


22 


6,600 


Yes 


4- 75 


Pittsburg & Butler 


1907 


39 


6,600 
11,000 


Yes 


13 MC 


4-100 


Erie R.R 


1907 


40 


No 


6 MC 


4-100 


First steam railroad to use single- 














phase system, Rochester-Mt. Morris 














Division. 














Windsor, Essex & Lake Shore. 


1907 


40 


6,600 


No 


8 MC 
1 L 


2-100 
4-100 


New York, New Haven & 


1907 


100 


11,000 


Yes 


41 L 


4-240 


Hartford, New York Division, 
23 miles of 4- track road. 


1908 






Yes 


1 L 


4-315 


1909 
1910 
1911 
1911 






Yes 
Yes 
Yes 
No 

No 


4 MC 
1 L 
1 L 
14 L 
4 MC 


4-150 








2-675 








8-174 


Harlem River freight yards . . 


63 




4-150 






4-150 


Visalia Electric Ry., California 


1908 


36 


3,300 


No 


6 MC 


4- 75 


(15 cycles). 










1 L 


4-125 


Grand Trunk Ry. : 














Sarnia-Port Huron Tunnel. . . 


1908 


12 


3,300 


No 


6 L 


3-240 


Hanover & York Ry., Pa 


1908 


21 


6,600 


Yes 


5 MC 


4- 75 


Baltimore & Annapolis S.L. . . . 


1908 


35 


6,600 


No 


12 MC 


4-100 


Colorado & Southern: 














Denver & Interurban R.R.. . . 


1908 


54 


11,000 


Yes 


16 MC 


4-125 


Chicago, Lake Shore & South 


1908 


90 


6,600 


No 


24 MC 


4-125 


Bend. 










7 MC 


2- 75 


Rock Island Southern: 


1910 


52 


11,000 


No 


6 MC 


4-100 


Rock Island to Monmouth. . . 










4 MC 


4-125 


New York, West Chester & 


1911 


63 


11,000 


No 


100 MC 


4-150 


Boston. 














Boston & Maine: 














Hoosac Tunnel 


1911 


25 
1039 


11,000 


No 


5 L 


4-315 


Total — 20 roads 


296 MC 
86 L 















Most of the installations are for railroad train service. 



ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 139 
SINGLE-PHASE RAILWAYS, 25 CYCLES. AMERICAN. 



Name of railway. 


Year 
opend. 


Mile- 
age. 


Trolley 
voltage. 


A.C. 
D.C. 


Equip- 
ment. 


Motors 
h.p. 


General Electric : 














Schenectady Ry.: 














Ballston Division, 


1904 


16* 


2,200 


Yes 


2 MC 


4-50 


(compensated motor). 














Illinois Traction Co : 














Bloomington-Peoria. . . . 


1905 


38* 


3,300 


No 


10 MC 


4-75 


Springfield-Mackinaw . . 


1907 


57* 


3,300 


No 


20 MC 


4-75 


Toledo & Chicago Ry 


1906 


43 


3,300 


Yes 


7 MC 


4-75 


Milwaukee Electric Ry. : 














Waukesha-Oconomowoc ; 


1907 


68* 


3,300 


Yes 


15 MC 


4-75 


BurHngton & East Troy. 














Richmond & Chesapeake 


1907 


16 


6,600 


No 


4 MC 


4-125 


Bay (repulsion motor). 














Anderson Traction, S. C. 


1907 


20 


3,300 


Yes 


3 MC 


4-75 


New York, New Haven & 


1908 


8 


11,000 


No 


2 MC 


4-125 


Hartford, Stamford- 










4 MC 


4-125 


New Canaan Branch. 














Shawinigan Ry., Quebec 


1908 


1 


6,600 


Yes 


r L 


4-150 


30 and 15 cycles. 














Washington, Baltimore 


1908 


87* 


6,600 


Yes 


22 MC 


4-125 


and Annapohs. 














Total 9 




354 

266 

88 






89 MC 
68 MC 
21 MC 




Abandoned* 4 








In service 5 

















General Electric Company used three sizes of single-phase motors. GE-604, 
50-h.p.; 605, 75-h.p.; 603, 125-h.p. For data on the latter see A. I. E. E., May 21, 
1907, p. 701. 

Cost of these alternating-current direct-current motor equipments is stated to 
have been nearly twice that of direct-current equipment. 

A 15-cycle, 400-h.p. experimental locomotive built in 1909 is described under 
electric locomotives. 

General Electric single-phase railway equipments have, in most cases, been 
discarded, as noted below: 

Schenectady Railway claimed unsatisfactory operating results. 

Illinois Traction abandoned single-phase equipment, because the motor operation 
was unsatisfactory, and to standardize the electric power system. Elec. Ry. Journ., 
Jan. 22, 1910, p. 142. 

Milwaukee Electric Railway and Light Company abandoned the system in 1909. 
President John I. Beggs is quoted: 

" I have been forced to this action very reluctantly, as this type of apparatus is, 
in my judgment, a commercially operating necessity thru sparsely settled territory 
on long outlying lines, the amount of business on which does not justify the mainten- 
ance of substations at frequent intervals with constant manual attention. The 



140 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

alternating-current equipment does fairly well when operated as single units, but on 
our lines, during seasons of heavy traffic, we are compelled to attach anywhere 
from one to three large trailers which our single-phase apparatus had not the power 
of starting." 

''We are substituting for the alternating-current equipment, the 600-1200-volt 
system, which reduces very considerably the objectionable features of direct-current 
substations at such frequent intervals. We have arranged for thirty 4-motor, 
125-h.p., direct-current equipments of this type (on 40-ton, 53-foot cars) to replace 
the fifteen 4-motor, 75-h.p. alternating-current equipments (on 41-ton, 53-foot cars) 
operated by us for nearly two years past." 

(In other words, the 75-h.p. electric motors were too small for the overloads.) 
The watt-hours per ton-mile were materially less for the alternating-current than 
for the direct-current system. References: E. R. J., May 1, 1909, p. 823. S. R. J., 
Aug. 3, 1907, p. 158; March 13, 1909, July 16, 1910. 

Washington, Baltimore & Annapolis Railway installed the single- 
phase system in 1908 for its interurban line, but abandoned it in 1909 
for the 1200-volt direct-current system. The road was placed in the 
hands of a receiver, who reported: 

"The cause of the present condition can be summed up by stating that the 
amount of the company's present liabilities, for which it has not been able to issue 
securities, is made up entirely of the amount which it has been required to put into 
its construction account, and the deficit caused by the large percentage of operating 
expenses under the alternating-current system." 

The writer investigated, and found that the road, which runs from Washington 
to Baltimore, has 33.5 miles of double track, and also a 15-mile single-track branch 
from the middle of the line to Annapolis. The road, except in the cities, is largely 
on a private right-of-way. It began electrical operation in February, 1908, as a 
single-phase trolley line. Motors were number 603-A, repulsion type, four 125-h.p, 
units per car, with plain rheostatic control on 600-volt direct-current, and with 
potential control, two motors being in series, on 113 to 450- volt single-phase circuits. 

The Washington terminal was 2.75 miles from the heart of the city, and a transfer, 
with delays, was required to reach the city via the local trolley cars, a handicap 
which accounted for the fact that the traffic and earnings fell short of the estimates. 

At Washington, the trolley runs in an underground conduit. The complication 
was indeed great, with the direct-current system, the alternating-current system, the 
overhead trolley, and the conduit trolley. Moreover, the limited strength of the 
conduit and track yokes would not support a 45-ton trolley Ga;r, and smaller cars 
were required to take 50-foot radius curves in Baltimore and Washington. The 
large interurban cars were sold, viz.: 23 cars, 62-foot, 66-seat, 57-ton with 4-125-h.p., 
alternating motors, and replaced by 33 cars, 50-foot, 54-seat, 39-ton, with 4-75-h.p., 
direct-curren motors. Vibration on the alternating motors was excessive when the 
load was heavy, and caused open circuits in armature leads. Some bar winding 
connections had to be riveted. Vibration even destroyed the cast-steel gears. The 
alternating-current motors had to be nursed. Sparking was bad, and required fre- 
quent commutator turning. Brush expense was heavy. Carbon dust in the motor 
case caused many short circuits or flash overs. Brush-holder losses and cleaning 
entailed heavy maintenance expense. 

One of the above alternating-current equipments was redesigned in 1909, with 
new contactor boxes, simplified control, drop-out overload contactors, a speed limit 



ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 141 

relay, and one transformer in place of two. Weight was decreased over four tons. 
These early troubles were very interesting. 

The company in 1910 adopted the 600-1200-volt direct-current system for the 
city and interurban sections of the line and cars now run into each city. The 7 
single-phase transformers formerly used were sold. Five new substations contain 
sixteen 300-kw., 600- volt rotary converters connected two in series, in pairs. The 
saving in cost of power, after the change, was 10 per cent, per car-mile in favor of the 
1200-volt direct-current system. Since the advance of fares, March 1, 1910, net 
earnings have increased. 



SINGLE-PHASE RAILWAYS, 25 CYCLES. EUROPEAN. 



Name of railway. 


Name of 
country. 


Year 
opend. 


Mile- 
age. 


Trolley 
voltage. 


Equip- 
ment. 


Motor 
h.p. 


Westinghouse : 














Midland 


England. . 


1908 


23 


6,600 


1 MC 


2-150 


Thamshavn-Lokken . . 


Norway . . 


1908 


36 


6,600 


3 L 
1 MC 


4- 40 

2- 40 


Swedish State: 


Sweden. . . 


1905 


7 


3,300 


1 L 


2-150 


Stockholm. 








18,000 
18,000 


1 L 

2 MC 


3-115 
2-120 


Tergnier-Anizy 


France . . . 


1909 


21 


3,300 


3 L 
3 MC 


2- 40 
2- 40 


Rom a-C i v i t a-Castel- 


Italy 


1905 


25 


6,600 


3 L .. 


4- 40 


lana. 










8 MC 


2- 40 


Salerene-Pompeii 


Italy..,.. 


1908 


19 


6,600 


20 MC 


2- 40 


Brembana Valley. . . . 


Italy 


1907 


19 


6,000 


5 L 


4- 75 


Siemens — Schuckert : 














Midland 


England. . 


1908 


23 


6,600 


2 MC 


2-175 


Swedish State 


Sweden. . . 


1905 


7 


18,000 


1 L 


3-110 


Rotterdam-Hague-S . . 


Holland. . 


1908 


48 


10,000 


25 MC 


2-175 


Prussian State: 














Blankanese-Ohlsdorf 


Germany . 


1907 


17 


6,000 


14 MC 


2-125 


Oranienburg 




1909 


2 


6,000 


1 MC 


2-175 


Haute- Vienne 


Austria. . . 


1910 




10,000 


35 MC 


4- 60 


St. Polten-Mariazell . . . 


Austria. . . 


1909 


67 


6,600 


17 L 


2-250 


Parma Provincial 


Italy 


1909 


40 


4,000 


10 MC 
8 MC 


2- 75 
1- 60 


Roma-Civita-Castel- 


Italy 


1906 


25 


6,600 


4 L 


4- 40 


lana. 










4 MC 


2- 40 


A. E. G. (Winter- 














Eichberg) : 














Prussian State: 


Germany . 


1903 


3 


6,000 


2 MC 


2-100 


Spindlersfeld. 










2 MC 


2-200 


Oranienburg, Berhn. 


Germany . 


1906 


2 


6,000 


1 L 
1 L 


3-350 
2-350 


Blankanese-Ohlsdorf 


Germany . 


1908 


17 


6,000 


54 MC 
42 MC 


3-115 
2-200 



142 ELICCTMC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

SINGLE-PHASE RAILWAYS, 25 CYCLES. EUROPEAN.— Continued. 



Name of railway. 


Name of 
country. 


Year 
opend. 


Mile- 
age. 


Trolley 
volts. 


Equip- 
ment. 


Motor 
h.p. 


Swedish State : 














Stockholm 


Sweden. . . 
Norway. . . 


1905 
1908 


5 
36 


6,500 
11.000 


2 MC 

2 MC 


2-115 


Thamshavn-Lokken . . 


4- 80 


Albtal Ry. : 


Germany . 


1909 


34 


8,000 


4 L 


4- 85 


Karlsruhe-Herrenalb . . 










7 MC 


2- 85 


Padua-Fusina 


Italy 


1909 


22 


6,000 


13 MC 


2- 80 


Naples-Piedimonte. . . 


Italy 


1909 


35 


10,000 


2 L 
9 MC 


4- 80 
4- 80 


Pamplona-Sanguesa. . . 


Spain 


1909 


43 


6,000 


5 MC 


4- 80 


London, Brighton & 


England. . 


1909 


62 


6,600 


16 MC 


4-115 


South Coast. 




1910 






30 MC 


4-150 


Oerlikon : 


- 












Valle-Moggia : 


Swiss 


1907 


17 


5,500 


3 MC 


4- 60 


Locarno-Bignasco . . 










1 L 




Brown-Boveri : 














Seethal Railroad: 














Lucerne- Wildegg . . . 


Swiss 


1909 


33 


5,000 


10 MC 


4-100 



SINGLE-PHASE RAILWAYS, 15 CYCLES. EUROPEAN. 



Name of railway 


Name of 


Year 


Mile- 


Trolley 


Equip- 


Motor 




country. 


opend. 


age. 


voltage. 


ment. 


h.p. 


Westinghouse : 














Lyons Tramways 


France.. . 


1909 


27 


6,600 


15 MC 


2- 50 


Midi, or Southern 


France. . . 


1910 


70 


12,000 


6L 
30 MC 


2- 800 
4- 125 


Bergmann : 














Prussian State: 














Magdeburg-Leipzig 


Germany 


1910 


23 


10,000 


IL 


1-1500 


Siemens — Schuckert : 














Bavarian State: 














Murnau-Oberammer- 


Germany 


1905 


14 


5,500 


2L 


2- 175 


gau. 










4MC 


2- 100 


Prussian State: 














Magdeburg-Leipzig . . . 


Germany 


1910 


23 


10,000 


IL 
IL 
1 L 
IL 


1- 800 
1-1100 
1-1800 
2-1250 


Baden State: 


Germany 


1909 


37 


10,000 


10 L 


2- 525 


Weisental-Basel-Zell.. 










2L 


2-1200 



ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 143 
SINGLE-PHASE RAILWAYS, 15 CYCLES. EUROPEAN.— Continued. 



Name of railway. 



Name of 
country. 



Year 


Mile- 


opend. 


age. 


1905 


46 


1909 


36 


1907 


13 


1910 


52 


1911 


46 


1911 


93 


1910 


29 


1910 


23 


1911 


30 


1909 


70 


1909 


52 


1910 


69 


1911 


42 


1905 


11 


1909 


52 


1910 


19 


1911 


48 


1909 


33 


1907 


46 


1909 


12 



Trolley 
voltage. 



Equip- 
ment. 



Motor 
h.p. 



Vienna-Baden 

Waitzen-Budapest- 

Godollo. 
Seebach-Wettingen. . . 
Bernese- Alps 

Rhatisch Mountain. . . 
Swedish State 

A.E.G. (Winter- 
Eichberg) : 
Rjukan 

Prussian State: 

Magdeburg-Leipzig. 

Bavarian State: 

Saltzburg-Berchtes- 
gaden. 

Midi or Southern 

Bernese Alps 

Mittenwald 

Vienna-Pressburg 



Austria 
Austria 

Swiss.. 
Swiss. . 

Swiss . . 
Sweden 



Norway. . 
Germany 



Germany 
France.. . 
Swiss. . . . 
Austria. . 
Austria. . 



Oerlikon : 

Swiss Federal: 

Seebach-Wettingen. 

Bernese Alps 

Prussian State 

Rhatisch Mountain . . , 

Brown -Boveri : 

Baden State 

Vienna-Baden 

Martigny-Orsieres . . . . 



Swiss. . . . 
Swiss. . . . 
Germany 
Swiss . . . . 



Germany 
Austria.. . 

Swiss . . . . 



10,000 
10,000 

15,000 
15,000 

10,000 
15,000 



10,000 
10,000 



10,000 
12,000 
15,000 
10,000 
10,000 



15,000 
15,000 
10,000 
10,000 



10,000 

10,000 

8,000 



20 MC 

4L 
11 MC 

1 L 

3MC 

2L 

IL 

2L 
13 L 



3L 
2L 
IL 
IL 
1 L 



IL 
1 L 
6L 
3 L 
5 L 



1 L 
IL 
1 L 
1 L 
3 L 



2MC 
2 L 
4 MC 



4- 60 
4- 240 
2- 150 
6- 225 
4- 220 
2-1000 
1- 600 
1-1000 
2-1000 



4- 125 
2- 125 
1-1000 

1- 800 

2- 950 



2- 800 
2- 800 
1- 800 
1- 800 
1- 600 



4- 500 
2-1000 
1-1000 
1- 600 
1- 300 



4- 40 
4- 90 



Siemens-Schuckert Company has sold prior to 1909, single-phase 15- and 25- 
cycle railway motors aggregating 33,490 h.p.; prior to September, 1910, 105,000 h.p. 

Allgemeine Elektricitats Gesellschaft had sold, prior to 1909, single-phase, 
15- and 25-cycle railway motors aggregating 42,480 h.p., and prior to January, 1911, 
100,000 h.p. 

Prussian, Swiss, Sweden, and Austrian State Railways changed in 1910 from 25- 
to 15-cycles. 

Seebach-Wettingen was abandoned in 1909. Two electric locomotives ran 78,000 
miles, but traffic was too light for economical electrical operation. 



144 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 
SUMMARY OF ALL SINGLE-PHASE RAILWAYS. 



25-cycle. 


Manufacturer. 


Mileage. 


Locomotives. 


Motor cars. 


Roads. 


American 

American 

European 

European 

European 

European 

European 

Total 


Westinghouse . 
Gen. Electric . . 
Westinghouse . 

Siemens 

A.E.G 

Oerlikon 

Brown 


1003 

88 

150 

229 

259 

17 

45 

1791 

1676 


86 

1 

16 

22 
8 

I 

134 


290 
21 
35 
99 

187 

3 

10 

645 


19 
5 

7 
8 

9 ' 
1 
2 
51 


Net 




44 













. 15-cycle. 


Manufacturer. 


Mileage. 


Locomotives. 


Motor cars. 


Roads. 


American 

European 

European ... . . 

European 

European 

European 

European 

Total 


Westinghouse . 
Westinghouse . 

Siemens 

A.E.G 

Oerlikon 

Brown 

Bergman 


36 

97 

360 

315 

119 

91 

23 

1041 

735 


1 

6 

41 

24 

6 

2 

1 

81 


6 

45 

38 





6 

95 


1 

2 
9 
7 
3 
3 
1 
26 


Net 




16 












Grand total net 




2399 


202 


734 


60 



COMBINATIONS OF ELECTRIC SYSTEMS. 

Combination, and mixed systems are noted briefly. 

1. Leonard has designed a system which uses single-phase alternating 
current on the contact line, which is converted on the locomotives, by 
a high-speed light-weight motor-generator set, to direct current for the 
motors. The generator field strength is varied to provide ideal control. 
The scheme is used by important mine hoists, by battle ships, and for 
rolling-mill work. One locomotive was built by the Oerlikon Company. 
Its disadvantage is in the weight of the electrical equipment per h.p.; 
while the advantages claimed are efficiency of the system and the perfect 
control of the speed and torque of the motors. 

This motor-generator plan, and the rectifier plan, may be used when 
three-phase 60-cycle power must be used. The conversion of 60-cycle 
current to direct current, on the locomotive, presents many handicaps. 



ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 145 

Leonard, A. I. E. E., July, 1892; St. Ry. Journ., June 7, 1902, p. 735. 
See description of Leonard-Oerlikon locomotives, which follows. 

2. Direct current and single-phase current are used, as on the New 
York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad between New York City and 
Stamford, direct current from the 600-volt third-rail for local and ter- 
minal service, and single-phase alternating current at 11,000 volts for 
trunk-line service outside of New York City. The combination requires 
the use of alternating-current, single-phase commutator motors. 

3. Three-phase direct -current motors are used when both currents are 
supplied for railway service. The field, or primary, of the motor is then 
the stator. One of the star-connected three-phase legs or windings is 
rearranged and utilized for excitation with direct current, while the other 
two, in series with the first, are utilized as compensation windings to 
assist direct-current commutation. The rotor may be an ordinary 
direct-current armature with three-phase tappings to 3 or 4 slip rings. 
The field and armature are connected in series. On alternating current 
the brushes must be lifted from the commutator and cascade operation 
would not be practical, except by placing motors in series. A three- 
phase, 600-volt, 1000-ampere, 25-cycle, 730-r. p. m. motor, on direct 
current, could be rated at 53 per cent, voltage, full current and 62 per 
cent, speed. London-Pt. Stanley (Ontario) Railway, a 27-mile road, 
built in 1905, used a three-phase, direct-current system. St. Ry. Journ., 
Dec. 9, 1905, p. 1026. Wilson and Lydall, '^Electrical Traction," Vol. 
II, p. 46. 

4. Single -phase current for variable-speed service from one of two 
trolleys, and of three-phase current for 1-speed thru-passenger and freight 
service, is used. Example: Stansstad-Engelberg Railway, Switzerland. 

5. Direct -current at 600 or 1200 volts from a third-rail; single-phase 
current from one trolley; and three-phase current from two trolleys, could 
be used for trains on the same section of track, with power supplied from 
the same three-phase bus-bar at the power station; and from the same 
transmission line and transformers, which may feed both rotary con- 
verters and high-voltage contact lines. 

6. Rectifier plans include a single-phase, alternating-current system, 
a 12,500-volt overhead line, a locomotive on which a special permutator 
converts the power into direct current at an e. m. f. adjustable at will 
between zero volts and 600 volts, and the use of power by ordinary 
direct-current motors. (The permutator is a revolving commutator.) 

Paris, Lyons & Mediterranean Railway is now trying this permuta- 
tor, or rotating commutator, on a single-phase locomotive. See tech- 
nical description of the locomotive which follows in Chapter IX. 

7. Mercury arc rectifiers, which convert single-phase alternating current 
to direct current without the use of rotating apparatus, may be placed at 

10 



146 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

intervals along the railway line or on the locomotive. This rectifier 
requires 25 or higher cycles. It may prove to be highly desirable, in 
electric systems. 

8. Steam or gasoline may be combined with electric power. A prime 
mover on the car, or locomotive, may drive a generator, which in turn 
may drive motors connected to the axles. 

The Glasgow steam-turbine locomotive has been described, page 81. 

General Electric Company's gasoline -electric cars are used for light 
service on branch lines. A gasoline engine is direct-connected to a very 
high-speed direct-current, variable-voltage generator. The fields of the 
generator are energized by a separate constant voltage exciter, controlled 
by a Tirrill regulator. The generator delivers current to the four 90-h. p., 
600-volt standard-geared railway motors on each axle. The gasolene 
engine runs continually. It is started by means of compressed air. 
The entire control is by means of the Leonard plans of varying the field 
and voltage of the generator. The simplest kind of controller is used 
and the efficiency of control is high. Where the car can run on a 600- 
volt trolley line the gasoline engine is taken out of service. 

9. Storage batteries are not yet used for railway trains. Develop- 
ments are being made for light traffic having in view a decrease in peak 
loads, improvement in motor economy during acceleration by using volt- 
age variation to prevent rheostatic losses, and the elimination of about 
50 per cent, of the power plant and all line and substation expenditures. 

The objections to storage batteries are the high first cost; added dead 
weight; chemical deterioration; destruction by shock in passing over 
switch work and in small collisions; time lost in charging the batteries; 
an efficiency of 50 to 60 per cent, when new; maintenance expense, 12 to 
15 per cent, per annum; and lack of capacity. 

INTERCHANGEABLE SYSTEMS. 

Interchangeable or universal systems of electrification have received 
much consideration. It is physically possible, practical, and for economy 
it is necessary to devise a motor which is interchangeable on alternating- 
current and direct-current systems. 

Single-phase, series, alternating-current, commutator motors are the 
nearest approach to this much-desired, interchangeable or universal 
system, since they may be used on 660 to 1500 volts direct-current 
circuits by placing 2 or 4 single-phase commutator motors in series; 
on 3,000 to 12,000 volts, by the use of a step-down transformer on the car 
or locomotive; on a single-phase contactor of a three-phase line; and 
on both 15 and 25 cycles, if the latter be necessary. 

The ultimate interchangeable system will probably embrace: 



ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 147 

1. A single contact line, because of the importance of simplicity in 
railroad switching yards. 

2. Voltages between 6000 and 12,000 volts, in order to transfer large 
blocks of power with a minimum contact line loss and with a low first cost 
of equipment, and catenary construction for safety in operation. 

3. An alternating-current, single-phase commutator motor, which is 
interchangeable on direct- and alternating-current circuits. 

A commutatorless, single-phase induction motor may be designed for 
practical railroad service. Experiments in 1911 so indicate. 

The rectifier may be developed for heavy service. 

Allgemeine Elektricitats Gesellschaft manufacture single-phase 
motors of the repulsion type, which cannot be used on direct-current 
circuits, and these have been successful in England and Germany. 

RELATIVE ADVANTAGES OF SYSTEMS. 

Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of the Principal Electric Systems Used for 

Electric Railway Trains. 

The systems compared, in short form, are the direct-current 600- 
1200-volt; three-phase 15-25-cycle, 3000-6000-volt; and single-phase 
15-25 cycle, 6000-1 1,000-volt. 

Generating equipment, so far as the prime mover is concerned, is not 
greatly affected by the electric system. 

Direct-current generators are relatively expensive, but they are sel- 
dom used for heavy railroad work. 

Alternating-current generators are cheaper, since they can be built 
in larger sizes and for much higher speeds than direct-current commu- 
tator machines. Economy of insulation generally required the use of 
Y-connected alternators, with an e. m. f. of about 11,000 volts. 

Generators for single-phase systems may be either single-phase or 
three-phase. The former, altho more common, are more expensive, since 
one leg or one-third of the windings is not utilized. The higher cost is 
offset, however, by lower cost of switchboards. 

"It is not much more expensive to use three-phase generators for 
single-phase distribution, as the new type of dampened field cuts down 
the rising voltage on the idle phase, making it possible to use three-phase 
for commercial requirements." Murray, A. I. E. E., Nov. 12, 1909. 

Three-phase generators for single -phase systems are used in the 
following four ways : 

Neutral points of the three-phase generators are connected to the track, 
and the 3 phases or legs are connected to the 3 sections or divisions of 
the trolley contact line. (Rotterdam-Hague-Scheveningen.) 

Two legs of the three legs of a Y-connected generator are used for 



148 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

the electric railway; but the three legs are available for transmission 
lines to transformer substation, etc. This makes an unbalanced system. 

Three-phase two-phase transformation can be used. 

Two-phase generators may be used, with one leg of each connected 
to the track, and each leg connected to insulated sections of the line. 

Power transmission is not practical with direct current for heavy 
traffic over distances greater than about 5 miles. 

The limitation is in high-voltage commutation, but if this limitation 
did not exist the minimum pressure to be adopted for ordinary railroad- 
train service would be 6000 volts. 

''The idea of transmitting large blocks of power by means of direct 
current is a forced idea," as stated by Behrend. 

Direct-current power must be generated as three-phase, high- 
potential, alternating current, and transmitted to substations where it is 
transformed and converted to direct current. About 50 per cent, of the 
energy generated is distributed to the motor. Single-phase, alternating 
current distribution losses run from 5 to 15 per cent., where three-phase 
distribution losses run from 10 to 20 per cent., generally speaking. 

The practicability of an electric power system depends upon its 
ability to transmit, collect, and utilize large blocks of power in an efficient 
manner. The transmission and distribution of the energy outweigh all 
other electrical items in electric traction for heavy individual train loads 
widely scattered on a railway division. 

Economy of copper is higher Jor equal weight of overhead copper 
with single-phase distribution than with polyphase arrangements. 
Murray, A. I. E. E., Jan., 1908. See Transmission and Contact Lines. 

Motor control losses in direct-current and three-phase motors during 
acceleration are large. The efficiency of control of single-phase motors 
is high, as will be detailed later. 

Motor efficiency when compared shows that the losses in large direct- 
current motors used on motor-car trucks are about 12 per cent., and for 
single-phase motors are 14 per cent.; and that the losses in motors used 
on large locomotives are 8 per cent, for direct current and three-phase 
motors and 10 per cent, for single-phase motors. Much depends upon 
the speed, design, and service. 

Weight of the single-phase motor is the heaviest because the magnetic 
heating and commutator losses are the largest; but the motor weight is 
a small part of the total train weight. See chapter on Railway Motors. 

SUMMARY. 

Principal advantages of the direct -current system : 

Direct-current motors are standard, well-tried, have good operating 
characteristics, and may be used on 600- and 1200-volt circuits. 



ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 149 

Danger is not involved with the low voltages used. 

Storage batteries may be used directly to smooth out the load. 

Transformers are grouped in rotary-converter substations, not on 
the moving motor car and electric locomotive.' 

Disadvantages of the direct -current system : 

Voltage of line is low, and this causes high transmission, conver- 
sion and contact line losses. 

Substation and transformer equipment cost is high. 

Operation and maintenance of substations are expensive. 

Electrolysis qf underground structures occurs. 

Efficiency of energy transmitted to tra ns is generally the lowest. 

Regeneration of energy is not practicable. 

Principal advantages of the three-phase system: 

Commutators are not used on motors. 

Efficiency of the motor is the highest. 

Constant speed may be used for some service. 

Regeneration of energy is most practicable. 

Principal disadvantages of the three-phase system: 

Two overhead trolleys involve danger, particularly around switching 
yards and for high-speed service. Common overhead catenary con- 
struction parallel to the two trolley wires is expensive. 

Low contact-line voltages are used. In the three European railroad 
installations, 3000 volts are used; and in America, on Great Northern 
Railway, 6000 volts are used. Substations must be frequent, because of 
the low voltages used on the trolley line. 

Motor characteristics are not satisfactory in regard to variable speed, 
efficiency during acceleration, drawbar pull with reduced voltages, and 
load factor of motor and generator in constant speed service. 

Principal advantages of the single -phase system: 

Transmission and contact line losses are a minimum. 

Transformer and substation expenditures are reduced. 

Transformation facilities are perfect. 

One trolley w^ire is used. Simplicity governs the weakest element 
of the system — the one element which cannot well be duplicate. Sim- 
plicity and safety are gained at switching yards and terminals. 

Energy required from the power plant is the lowest. 

High efficiency is obtained during train acceleration periods, and the 
motor potential can be varied without rheostatic losses. 

Variable speed is obtained from motors. The speed is varied by 
changing the relation of the secondary and primary taps at the trans- 
former. 

Drawbar pull of motors depends directly upon the voltage; if the line 



150 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

voltage is low, the motor voltage may be raised by changes at the step- 
down transformer. 

Transformer substation load factor is very high, because each sub- 
station (and often the generating station) reaches out and furnishes 
power to the diversified load of heavy individual train units, which are 
widely scattered. (The substation does not carry two 1000-h. p. trains 
in a 10-mile division, but twenty 1,000-h. p. trains in a 50-mile division. 
The load is diversified and becomes uniform. The load factors of the 
transmission line, transformers, and contact line are thus relatively high 
and the cost per train-mile, ton-mile, or passenger-mile is relatively low. 
This advantage is of great economic value in railroading. 

Disadvantages of the single -phase system : 

Equipment cost for all short roads is higher. 

Maintenance cost of motors is higher. 

'^Reduced output of both generator and motors; the reduced 
efficiency; the impaired regulation; the increased heating and less 
stability of the single-phase motor and generator, and the increased cost 
resulting from the greater amount of material required." Behrend, 1906. 

The single-phase system was first installed for train haulage in 1907. 

COST OF COMPLETE EQUIPMENT. 

The cost of the complete equipment can only be stated in general 
terms. The cost varies for any given train service. Heavy trains and 
infrequent service always favor the alternating-current systems; while 
light trains and frequent local service always favor the direct-current 
system. Multiple-unit operation, distance between stops, and length 
of road affect the cost of electrical equipment to a great extent. 

Cost of the direct -current system is extremely high for electric train 
service because of the greater investment in secondary feeders, sub- 
stations, transformers, converters, and switchboards. If, however, these 
could be reduced by the use of a mercury gas rectifier, the situation would 
be bettered. 

Cost of the three-phase system is low for light railway work. In 
Italy where 3000 volts are used, a catenary cable does not support 
the two trolleys at frequent intervals, as with the single-phase sys- 
tem. For heavy, high-speed railroad work, the cost of equipment 
with 3000 or 6000 volts is high, because numerous substations are 
necessary, and catenary construction parallel to the two trolley wires 
is necessary. 

Cost of the single -phase system for heavy work is relatively low 
because of the use of high voltages and the simplicity in construction. 
In most cases, the absence of line transformers much more than offsets 



ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 151 

the higher cost of motors used on motor cars and locomotives. The 
peak load at the substation is relatively low because the high-voltage 
distribution from each substation reaches many trains to equalize the 
load and this decreases the investment for the average output or work. 
Cost of equipment is detailed in '^Procedure in Railroad Electrifica- 
tion." 

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE. 

There is a reasonable difference of opinion on this subject. Care 
should be taken to avoid the comparison of data on maintenance of 
interurban and terminal railways which use 600 and 1200 volts with 
railroad trains which require higher voltages. They are not comparable. 
Further, the depreciation of the first alternating-current roads, so recently 
installed, was larger than it will be in the future. 

Direct-current systems are the most expensive to operate, until the 
interest and depreciation charges become a small part of the operating 
expense, as in the case of rapid transit service, where the greater part of 
the investment is in multiple-unit car equipment. 

Three-phase operating and maintenance costs may or may not 
be higher than others. The motors are simple, and the overhead 
construction is not much more expensive to maintain, but the cost of 
power will be higher for constant-speed service. 

Single-phase maintenance cost, at the present state of the de- 
velopment, is somewhat higher than that for the direct-current, but 
eventually there will be little difference. Heavy railroad transmission 
losses will be lower than with other systems, probably from 15 to 20 per 
cent, lower. The absence of converter substation maintenance is an im- 
portant matter. In many cases transformer substations will be unneces- 
sary. The combined savings will make the cost of maintenance and 
operation of the single-phase system 4 to 8 per cent, lower than the 
direct-current system and probably lower than the three-phase system. 

Indianapolis & Cincinnati Traction Company, with two divisions from 
Indianapolis, one to Connersville, 58 miles, and one to Greensburg, 50 
miles, and a total mileage of 116, has used the single-phase electric power 
system since December, 1904. Fifty-ton, 55-foot cars with four 100- 
h.p. motors are used. Unfortunately, it is compelled to use direct cur- 
rent at terminals, thus requiring a double-control equipment. 

In the operation of the power plant ^^ the alternating-current system 
saves under present conditions about $16,000 or 23 per cent, per annum 
in operating expenses over what would be the cost of the same operation 
with direct current." A. D. Lundy, Consulting Engineer, 1907. 

H. M. Hobart discussed this subject before the British Institution of 



152 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Mechanical Engineers in July, 1910, and stated as the result of his cal- 
culations, based on what purported to be accurate data, ^Hhat the cost of 
current plus the interest, on the investment in rolling stock, was 6 cents 
per train-mile higher for single-phase than for direct current in moderate 
service. The advantages of direct current over single-phase current 
were more apparent the higher the schedule speed and the shorter the 
distance between stops." 

J. Dalziel, of the Midland Railway, in the same discussion stated: 
"Single-phase in suburban work must have very serious disadvantages 
to warrant its being discarded when its many advantages for main-line 
operation are admitted. Much of the trouble with single-phase appa- 
ratus was due to the complication involved by attempting to operate 
single-phase motors on direct-current sections. With regard to efficiency, 
comparative figures proved that the single-phase motors on the Midland 
Railway consumed 20 per cent, less current than direct-current motors 
on the Liverpool-Southport line when running at the same schedule speed." 

Midland Railway of England equipped its Heysham-Lancaster Branch with 
single-phase equipment in 1908. The traffic is ordinarily light and consequently 
expensive to operate by steam ; but there is a heavy summer traffic tending to congest 
the main-line trains. Motor cars are required on a service and schedule very similar 
to that of the former steam locomotives. 

" The single-phase apparatus is equally as capable of working such services (high- 
speed, frequent stop, suburban-interurban) as direct-current apparatus ; the weight of 
the single-phase train is only a very small percentage greater than that of correspond- 
ing direct-current trains," Dalzel and Sayer, to Inst, of Civil Engineers, Nov., 1909. 

CONCLUSIONS AND OPINIONS. 

Prussian State, Swedish State, Swiss Federal, and Austria-Hungary 
Railroad Administration, during the past 5 years have had a commission 
of noted engineers studying the question of the best system. These 
commissions have inspected installations, discussed technical and 
financial data, made long reports, and in each case have finally decided 
that the 10,000-volt, 15-cycle, single-phase system is best suited for 
traction on main lines, altho direct-current and the three-phase system 
have been found applicable under certain conditions. Attention has 
been called to the fact that the single-phase system complied with tjie 
desire for unity of systems in simplifying international communication. 

Italian State Railway favors the three-phase system. The chief 
engineer of the electrical department, Mr. Verola, stated in 1909: 

"The decision to use the three-phase system is not final and absolute for our 
administration, but the latter considers it preferable as a beginning for the lines at 
present under electrification. The possibility of using single-phase systems in other 
cases, which may better lend themselves to it, is thereby not excluded. In the case 
of the three lines (Pontedecimo Busalla, Bardonecchia Modane and Savona-Ceva), 



ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 153 

the service is extremely heavy, trains of 440 tons and over having to be hauled up on 
long grades of 2.5 to 3.5 per cent, at a speed of 45 km. per hour. With the three- 
phase system it is possible to comply with these conditions by using two 67-ton, 
2000-h. p. locomotives. The three-phase system has the advantage that in running 
downhill the speed cannot exceed a certain limit, while recuperation of energy is 
possible. The advantages of wider speed adjustment in running and better efficiency 
of the single-phase system in starting are not of importance, since the grades are long 
and fairly uniform, and the distance between stations is great. Other lines will be 
worked single-phase. One of these is the Turin-Pinerolo-Torre-Pelice, where widely 
different speeds are necessary, the maximum being 80 km. per hour for 112-ton 
passenger trains." 

Sprague stated before the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, 
November, 1909, what to the writer appears to be an excellent summary: 

''It is not deemed wise first to decide upon a system, but rather to 
ascertain the costs of locomotives (and motor cars) by various systems 
which could perform a service determined as essential to effective opera- 
tion, and then to collate all the facts, advantageous and otherwise, affect- 
ing capital cost and cost of operation, after which the best system to meet 
the existing conditions could be determined. We are passing thru that 
inevitable stage of development and elimination essential to final correct 
decisions and permanency of results. However critical we sometimes 
feel as to the inadequacy of any system in some particular application, 
every installation is welcomed which promises to further the effective and 
economic application of electricity to trunk-line operation." 

Stillwell was more definite, and his remarks on systems are recom- 
mended for consideration: 

'' Standardize with respect to those things which are essential to inter- 
change of rolling stock, by (1) careful study by a competent commission 
of the broad problem of railway electrification, (2) selection of that sys- 
tem which present knowledge points to as best adapted for a general 
solution, and (3) concentration of efforts in perfecting the details of a 
system selected." 

This method is contrasted with selections of systems for a specific 
problem which ignore the obvious fact that the horizon of the present 
''zones of electrification" is sure to expand in the near future and that 
these horizons in many instances are certain to overlap before the expira- 
tion of the proper period of amortization of the capital invested in the 
apparatus selected. 

Four conclusions on systems are now well established. 

The direct-current 600- or 1200-volt rotary-converter substation 
system can best be used to distribute and collect large amounts of energy 
for dense, local traffic. It is not an efficient system for ordinary rail- 
way train service. 

The three-phase system will give good results when low-speed, heavy 



154 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

train service and regeneration of power on grades are combined. It is 
not adapted for motor-cars, frequent acceleration, and switching. 

The single-phase system combines simplicity, flexibility, economy in 
power transmission, variable speeds, lowest cost for service with heavy 
individual freight and passenger trains, and the motors used can be run 
on sections equipped for three-phase or for direct-current operation. 

The best system for train service is not one adapted to individual 
cases, but one which is adapted to the electrification of complete railroads. 

The choice of the electric railway system is an important matter. 
The details and the application of the systems of railway electrification 
offered must be carefully compared from all physical and financial 
standpoints. The decision is of importance because it affects safety, 
capacity, and interchange of equipment; it commits the railway to better 
or poorer results in operation. Standards should be adopted soon, which 
will decrease the excessive cost of changing from steam to electric opera- 
tion, and in order that the public may obtain the benefits of improved 
transportation facilities and service. 

LITERATURE. 
References on 1200-Volt, Direct-current System. 
See references accompanying lists of roads. 
Eveleth: 1200 Volts for Interurban Roads, with cost sheets, A. I. E. E., Jan 10, 1910; 

E. T. W., July 13, 1909; G. E. Review, June, 1910. 
McLenegan: 1200-Volt Railway Equipment, E. T. W., June 26, 1907. 
Hill: Operation of 1200-Volt System, G. E. Review, June, 1909. 

Milwaukee Electric Railway: E. R. J., Aug. 3, 1907, p. 158; July 16, 1910, p. 102. 
See references on pages 129 and 130. 

References on Three-phase System. 
Waterman: Three-pliase Traction, A. I. E. E., June 19, 1905. 
Steinmetz: Polyphase Traction, E. W., Jan. 1, 1898. 
Gibson: Polyphase Traction, E. W., July 21, 1900. 
Valatin: Comparison of Motors, S. R. J., Jan. 4, 1908. 
Davis: Control of Motors, E. W., Jan., 1898. 

Danielson: Combinations of Polyphase Motors, Characteristics, A. I. E. E., May, 1902. 
De Muralt: Systems of Electrification, S. R. J., Feb. 17, 1906. 

References on Three-phase Railway Installations. 
Wilson and Lydall: "Electrical Traction," Vol. II, particularly, p. 110. 
Berlin-Zossen: ''Electric Railway Tests," McGraw, 1905. 
Berlin-Hamburg: S. R. J., May 16, 1903, p. 736; June 7, 1902, p. 720. 
Lugano Street Ry.: S. R. J., 1896, p. 307. 

Gorner-Grat Railway: S. R. J., 1898, pp. 36, 166; 1899, 873; 1902, 694. 
Jungfrau: S. R. J., 1902, p. 699. 

Stansstad-Engelberg: E. W., Feb. 18, 1899; S. R. J., June 7, 1902, p. 697. 
Burgdorf-Thun: S. R. J., Sept. and Dec, 1899, pp. 583, 855; June 7, 1902, pp. 696, 
720; S. R. R., Sept. 15, 1900; Wilson, B. I. M. E., July 20, 27, 1900. 



ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 155 

Italian State: Hammer, A. I. E. E., Feb., 1901; Waterman, A. I. E. E., June, 1905; 

Nov., 1909; S. R. J., 1900, p. 1137; 1901, p. 344; May 2, 1903, p. 663, 788; 

Aug. 5 and 26, 1905; April 6, 1907; Jan. 4, 1908. 
Giovi Line, Italy: Electric Journal, May, 1910. 
London Tubes or Inner Circle: S. R. J., 1898, p. 139; Dec. 7, 1901, p. 842; Wilson 

and Lydall, ''Electrical Traction," Chapter I, p. 53. 
Miami-Erie Canal Road: S. R. J., Nov. 7, 1903, p. 830. 
London-St. Stanley, Ontario: S. R. J., Dec. 9, 1905; photos of motor. 
Simplon Tunnel: S. R. J., Feb 3 and 24, 1906; E. W., Oct. 27, 1906; Elec. Review, 

Nov. 13, Dec. 4, 1909. 
Great Northern: Hutchinson, A. I. E. E., Nov., 1909; see discussion of paper. 

References on Direct- current Versus Single -phase System. 

Eichberg: E. R. J., Aug. 7, 1909, p. 223. 

Sprague: Trunk-hne Operation. A. I. E. E., May 21, 1907. 

Westinghouse : Direct-current vs. single-phase current system for New York Central. 

S. R. J., and E. W., Dec, 1905; Railroad Gazette, Dec. 22, 1905, p. 579. 
Lamme: Single-phase Railways, A. I. E. E., September, 1902; Alternating Current 

for Railway Trains, N. Y. R. R. Club, March, 1906; S. R. J., March 24, 1906. 
Potter: Unit Cost of Electric Railways. B. I. M. E., July, 1910; E. R. J., July 9, 1910. 
Davis: Destinies of 500- volt d. c, 1200- volt d. c, and 6600- volt a. c. motors, E. R. J., 

Sept. 24, 1910. 

References on Alternating-current Systems, in General. 

Dawson: Electric Traction on Trunk Lines. S. R. J., Apr. 7, 1906. 

Lamme: A. I. E. E., Sept., 1902; N. Y. R. R. Club, March, 1906; S. R. J., March 24, 

1906; Elec. Journal, Feb. and April, 1906. 
Blanck: Single-phase Railways. A. I. E. E., Feb., 1904; S. R. J., Mar. 12, 1904. 
Hobart: Single-phase Traction. S. R. J., May 4, 1907. 
Arnold: International Elec. Congress, St. Louis, Sept., 1904. 
Davis: Alternating- vs. Direct-current Systems, A. I. E. E., March, 1907. 

References on Westinghouse Single -phase System. 

Lamme: A. I. E. E., Sept., 1902; S. R. J., Jan. 6, 1906; Elec. Journal, Jan., 1909. 

Renshaw: S. R. J., March 26, 1904; Elec. Journal, Dec, 1908. 

Scott: Amer. St. Ry. Assoc, Sept., 1905; Elec. Journal, July, 1905. 

Lincoln: Elec. Age, Feb., 1904; Westinghouse Bulletin, 7020, June, 1904. 

Westinghouse: N. Y., N. H. & H., S. R. J., Dec 23, 1905. 

European data on Traction Systems: L 'Industrie Elec, Jan. 10, 1909. 

Electotechnische Zeitschrift: Proceedings of German Institution of Electrical Engin- 
eers, July, August, and September, 1907. 

Storer: Single-phase Railways, E. R. J., Jan. 1, 1910. 

Darlington: Economic Considerations Governing the Selection of Electric Railway 
Apparatus, Western Society of Engineers, Oct., 1910; Elec. Journal, Feb., 1910. 

References on Electric Generators in Systems. 

Waters: Single-phase Generator for Railways, A. I. E. E., July, 1908. 
Armstrong: Single- versus Three-phase Generators, S. R. J., June 29, 1907. 
Ayers: Generators and Connections, E. W., Dec. 23, 1909, p. 1522. 



156 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Hallberg: Comparison of Alternating-current Systems, E. W., Jan. 14, 1905, p. 99. 

Roedder: "Elektrische Fernbahnen," p. 199. 

Editorial: Selection of Generators, S. R. J., Nov. 11, 1905. 

References on Single -phase Railways, Descriptive. 

See references and descriptions of electric locomotives, power plants, motor cars, and 
work done by prominent roads in chapters which follow. 

Westinghouse Installations — Best References. 

Indianapolis & Cincinnati: E. W., Feb. 18, 1905, pp. 335 and 510; S. R. J., Jan., Feb., 

May, 1905, pp. 300 and 502. 
San Francisco, Vallejo & N. V.: S. R. J., Dec. 12, 1908. 
Long Island R.R., Sea CHff Division: S. R. J., Dec. 16, 1905. 
Windsor, Essex & Lake Shore: S. R. J., Jan. 11; July 25, 1908; E. W., Jan. 11, 

1908. 
Baltimore & Annapolis: E. R. J., July 4, 1908; Whitehead: A. I. E. E., June, 1908. 
Denver & Interurban R.R.: S. R. J., Oct. 2, 1909; E. T. W., Sept. 25, 1909. 
Chi., Lake Shore & S. Bend: E. R. J., April 10, 1909, for map, stations, line, cars. 
Rock Island Southern R.R.: E. R. J., July 16, 1910; Electric Journal, Oct., 1910. 

General Electric Installations — Best References. 

Illinois Traction: E. W., Mar. 25, 1905, p. 579; May 6, 1905, p. 841; Hewett, S. R. J. 

April 25, 1905, p. 565 and 812; E. R. J., Jan. 22, 1910, p. 142. 
Toledo & Chicago; S. R. J., Oct. 13, 1906. 
Milwaukee Elec. Railway: E. W., March 10, 1906; S. R. J., March 13, 1909, p. 102; 

E. R. J., May 1, 1909, p. 823; July 16, 1910. 
Richmond & Chesapeake Bay: S. R. J., March 7, 1908; Ry. Age, March 13, 1909. 
N. Y., N. H. & H.: New Canaan Branch, E. W., Jan. 18, 1908, p. 139; E. R. J., May 

15, 1909, p. 901. 
Washington, Baltimore & Annapolis: E. R. J., Feb. 15, 1908; Ry. Age, March 13, 

1908; Motors: E. R. J., Jan. 18, 1908, p. 82; Cars: Oct. 12, 1907; Hewett, G.E. 

Review, Nov., 1910. 

References on Single -phase European Railways. 

See references and descriptions on motor cars, locomotives, and work done by promi- 
nent roads, in succeeding chapters. 

Midland Railway, England: E. R. J., July 4, 1908: Elec. Age, Aug., 1910. 

London, Brighton & South Coast: E. R. J., March 6, 1909. 
Dawson: "Electric Traction on Railways," 1909, 
Resuhs: London Electrician, Sept. 9, 1910; B. I. C. E., March 1911. 

Swedish State: See Chapter XV. 

Thamshavn-Lokken, Norway: Ry. Age, Sept. 2, 1910. 

Rotterdam-Hague Scheveningen: Ry. Age, July 8, 1910. See Chapter XV. 

Blankanese-Hamburg-Ohlsdorf : E. W., Nov. 18, 1909; S. R, J., March 17, 1906. 

Oranienburg: E. R. J., Dec. 25, 1909. See Chapter X. 

Magdeburg-Leipzig: Elec. Zeit., April 21, 1910. 

Valle Moggia: S. R. J., March 24, 1906. ' 

Murnau-Oberammergau : S. R. J., April 1, 1905, p. 591, 

Wiesental Railway: Basel-Schopfheim-Zell, E, R. J., Dec, 11, 1909, p. 1177. 

Rome-Castellana: E. R. J., June 27, 1908. 

Milan Exhibition, Elec. Review, Dec. 12, 1903; E. R. J., Aug. 11, 1900. 



ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 157 

References on Combinations of Systems. 
Zanzig: Rectifiers and Permutators, Description and action of tlie Rouge-Fazet 

rectifier, Elec. Review, Dec. 4, 1909. 
Leonard System: Motor-generator Combination; A. I. E. E., July, 1892, p. 566. 
Huber: Oerlikon Converter Locomotive, S. R. J., June 7, 1902, p. 733. 
Gasoline-Electric Trains: E. W., July 22, 1911, p. 217. 

References on Relative Cost of Electrification. 

Davis: 600 and 1200 volts d. c, 6600 volts single-phase, A. I. E. E., 1907, p. 387. 

Eveleth: 600 versus 1200 volts for interurbans, A. I. E. E., Jan. 11, 1910. 

Slicter: Cost of equipment at 25 and 15 cycles, A. I. E. E., Jan. 25, 1907, p. 131. 

Dahlander: Swedish State Ry., S. R. J., Feb. 24, 1906. 

Sprout: Data on Costs, a. c. versus d. c, E. R. J., Dec. 12, 1908. 

Potter: Unit Cost of Elec. Ry., B. I. M. E., July, 1910; E. R. J., July 9, 1910. 

See literature on Cost of Electrification under Procedure in Railroad Electrification. 



CHAPTER V. 
ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE. 

^ Outline. 

Introduction : 

Historical development, voltages, currents, classification with systems. 

Direct or Continuous Current Motors. 

Three -Phase Alternating -Current Motors. 

Single -Phase Alternating -Current Motors. 

Comparison of Motors. 

Rating of Motors: 

One-hour and continuous ratings, comparisons based on ratings, ventilation 
of motors, ratings of motors with forced draft, selection of requisite capacity. 

Mechanical and Electrical Data: 

Names and ratings, weights, speeds, dimensions, field and armature data. 

Development of Motor Design: 

1. Magnet frames. 2. Pole pieces. 3. Field coils. 4. Air gap. 5. Arm- 
ature core. 6. Armature winding. 7. Commutator. 8. Brushes. 9. Arm- 
ature speed. 10. Bearings. 11. Gearing. 12. Axles. 13. Suspension, 

Speed -Torque Characteristics of Motors: 

Direct- and alternating-current motors; effect of voltage, gearing, drivers. 

Choice of Cycles for Motors, 15 Versus 25. 

Control of Motors. 

Literature. 



158 



CH.\PTER V. 

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE. 

INTRODUCTION. 

A study of electric railway motors embraces types, rating, mechanical 
and electrical design, running characteristics, and control. Commercial 
considerations demand capacity, reliability, and low maintenance, for 
economy in transportation. 

The electric motor is but one link in the electric railway; yet it is of 
first importance. The essential contributing items are ample and eco- 
nomical prime movers, generation at a suitable voltage, cycle, and phase, 
and a simple and efficient method by which large blocks of energy may 
be transmitted and transformed. The motor receives the electric power, 
and simply translates it into the requisite drawbar pull and speed. 




Fig. 27. — Standard Truck and Motor. Bentley-Knight, 1885. 

Motor suspension on axle bearings and on a truck crossbar — nose suspension. 

Double reduction gears. 

Historically the first general observation made regarding motors for 
use on passenger and freight cars is that, about 1890, one motor per 
truck was mounted on the first double-truck electric cars. About 1898, 
electric motor cars had become heavier, rapid acceleration and high 
speeds were used, and coaches were hauled; and the service then required 
the use of ''4-motor equipments." When electric trains are operated 
in place of single cars, the air resistance and also the rail friction per ton 
on the private right-of-way are reduced, and two motors per car generally 

159 



160 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

furnish sufficient capacity. A study of the statistical tables, in " Motor- 
car Trains/' shows exceptions to this rule, particularly where heavy 
motor cars are used to haul heavy coaches. 

Improvements in direct-current motors since 1900 have been few. 
They include commutating poles and slotting of mica between commuta- 
tor bars. Three-phase motors were well developed prior to 1902, since 
which time few changes have been made. Single-phase railway motors 
have been developed since 1904; they have been rapidly improved, and 
are well perfected. The commutator troubles on all motors now sold are a 
minimum, maintenance expense has become a small item, and the 
depreciation rate is remarkably low. 

Voltages for direct-current motors were 75 volts as used in 1883 by 
Field and Edison; 125 volts used in 1884 by Daft with his compound- 
wound 8-h. p. motor on the Baltimore Union Passenger Railway; and 450 
volts used in 1888 by Sprague for two 7-h.p. motors per car at Richmond, 
Va. The standard voltage for direct-current street railway motors is 
now 550. Voltages of 600 to 660 volts are used for heavy railway-train 
service and voltages of 1200 volts with two 600-volt motors connected 
in series are used by 14 interurban American railways. 

Three-phase motors in Europe since 1902 have used 3000 volts on the 
trolley and on the motors. This limit will not be greatly increased 
because of the difficulty of insulating motor windings; and because 
complicated terminal and switching yards with two overhead trolleys 
involve danger. In America, the Cascade Tunnel of the Great Northern 
Railway uses three-phase, 6000-volt contact lines, but the controllers 
and motors use 500 volts. 

Series-alternating motors use 250 to 350 volts, and repulsion types 
use from 250 to 800 volts, or even higher on field windings. The high 
voltage on the contact line, 3000, 6000, or 11,000 volts, is reduced by 
transformers on the car or locomotive. 

The cycles used on American alternating-current railways are 25, 
while both 15 and 25 cycles are used in Europe, as previously detailed. 

Classification of railway motors for electric trains is usually made 
with reference to the several electric systems. Equipment generally 
includes prime movers, three-phase generators, transformers to raise the 
generator voltage, if it is necessary for the power transmission, trans- 
formers to reduce the voltage at substations to either 3000, 6000, or 
11,000 volts for the three-phase or single-phase trolley contact lines, or 
to about 410 volts for rotary converters which change the energy to 
direct current, ordinarily at 660 volts, for the contact line. With an 
interchangeable single-phase motor, a railway may use direct current 
for short-distance, rapid-transit, or terminal service from a third-rail 
contact; or single-phase current for infrequent, heavy, and concentrated 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 161 

long-distance freight and passenger traffic from one high-voltage trolley 
of a single-phase or three-phase line. 

DIRECT -CURRENT MOTORS. 

Direct-current, 600-volt motors are well established. These motors 
are series wound, have commutating poles, and are enclosed in a steel 
frame. 

The potential between the contact line and the track rail, 550 to 660' 
volts, is used by motors on about 95 per cent, of the 36,000 miles of 
American electric railways. The potential is 1200 volts on about 550 
miles of American interurban railways, and, while the motors are 
insulated for 1200 volts, they run two in series on the 1200-volt line, 
except in the' case of 1200-volt, 75-h. p., G.E.-205 motors used by the 
Central California Traction Company, in which the number of commu- 
tator bars is approximately double, the creepage distances on the com- 
mutator and brush holders is double that of standard 600-volt motors, 
and the field is wound with double insulation on the wire. 

The 1200 volts are used ^outside of large cities and 600 volts within 
the city limits. The 1200-volt motor is now advocated for heavier work, 
in competition with the alternating-current motor. 

Series motors of both direct-current and alternating-current types 
have been quite universally adopted, because series motors have great 
magnetic pull, or tractive effort, for starting trains or for running up 
grades. The tractive effort of the series motor varies approximately 
inversely as the speed, and thus the load on the motor and on the line is 
somewhat more uniform than would be the case if the tractive effort and 
speed were each maintained. Power is proportional to the product of 
the tractive effort and the speed. 

Advantages of direct-current series motors : 

Speed-torque characteristics enable them to automatically protect 
themselves from electric heating, which varies as the square of the current 
input. Since the speed is not maintained with the tractive effort, the 
motor is of smaller size, weight, and cost, for a given or average amount 
of work. 

Safety is obtained wdth the low trolley voltage used. 

They are standardized and have been adopted for city service. 

Two 600-volt motors may be used in series on 1200-volt lines. 

Compared with single-phase motors, commutation is better, efficiency 
is higher, armatures are smaller, speed is lower, weight is less, cost is less, 
and maintenance expense is lower. 

Disadvantages of direct -current series motors : 

Cost of the complete system is highest because of the trans- 
it 



162 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 




Fig. 28. — Allis-Chalmers 501 Electric Railway Motor. 
Fifty-h. p. on 690 volts; 42-h. p. on 500 volts, direct current. Interpoles are shown in the open 

field frame. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 163 




Fig. 29. — Allis Chalmers 501 Electric Railway Motor. 
View is from suspension side, and with closed field frame. 




Fig. 30. — Buffalo and Lockport Railway Motor for 1898 Locomotive. 
Cover removed. Capacity 160 horse power. 



164 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

formations, 600-volt converter substations, extra labor required, and 
expensive local distributing feeders for railroad-train service. 

Insulation of 1200 volts in motors and controllers increases the size, 
weight, and cost. Flashing from commutator to brush holders and tt) 
nearby frames, increases the operating expense and liability of 
trouble. 

THREE-PHASE MOTORS. 

Three-phase motors are now established for a limited use. They are 
known as constant-speed motors to distinguish them from series or 
variable-speed motors; yet the speed of three-phase motors can be 
varied in several ways, as will be detailed under Control of Motors. The 
acceleration of three-phase motors is at a full rate up to full speed, and 
this characteristic calls for high-power peaks on the motor, the line, and 
the power plant. 

The speed of rotation depends upon the frequency of the cycles of the 
generator, which is practically constant. When the motor is rotating at 
maximum speed, it is at synchronous speed. The speed slows down 
2 to 5 per cent, on full load. When resistance is inserted in the rotor 
circuit of three-phase motors, there is a negative "slip," or difference 
between the rate of rotation of the rotor and of the power generator. 
When the rotor is forced above speed, in down-grade running, there is a 
positi-ve ''slip," and energy can be regenerated and returned to the 
source of supply. 

Three-phase motors are not used for frequent stops or rapid transit 
service, or for switching, because either the efficiency or the drawbar pull 
is poor during the acceleration period. Their use is limited, funda- 
mentally, to long-distance running. For installations on railroads, see 
''Electric Systems," Chapter IV. 

The stator of the motor consists of a steel casting which holds a lam- 
inated magnetic ring. Electrically, the stator is the primary of a trans- 
former, while the rotor or armature is the secondary. Alternating three- 
phase current is supplied from the power plant to the primary winding, 
and three-phase current is induced in the rotor or secondary. The inter- 
action produces the torque and drawbar pull. The rotor may have 
collector rings, in order that resistance may be inserted to limit the induced 
current, and to increase the torque; or the rotor may be of high resistance 
but of the short-circuited, "squirrel-cage" type. 

Three-phase motors have no commutators, and would be ideal for 
railroad work if they could be used with a single-phase high-voltage 
contact line, but when so operated they lose their best characteristics. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 165 

L. C. de Muralt, publisher of a monthly leaflet (Electric Trunk Line 
Age) which advocates the three-phase system, announced in May, 1909, 
that there had been designed and operated in practical service, at the 
University of Michigan, a good three-phase motor for electric railway 
purposes which ran successfully on single-phase circuits. If this were 
true, an important development might be expected, because it would 
place the three-phase induction motor on a different basis. 

A three-phase motor, operating single -phase, with two of its terminals 
connected to the single-phase mains, runs as a single-phase induction 
motor. The third terminal must be connected to a phase-displacing 
device to get the necessary cross magnetization for producing torque by 
its action upon the induced secondary energy currents. The torque of the 
three-phase induction motor on a single-phase circuit is zero in starting, 
or the motor will not start. Resistance may be inserted in the secondary, 
as in three-phase motors, to increase the torque. When well above half- 
speed, torque will be delivered until the motor is overloaded, after which 
it will die down. 

McAllister: "Alternating-current Motors," 3rd Ed., p. 58. 

Garlecon: Polyphase Motors run Single-phase, Electric Journal, Aug., 1905. 

Advantages of three-phase motors : 

1. Electrical efficiency of three-phase motors is high. An efficiency 
of .91 is obtained, where .90 is common with direct-current, and .87 with 
single-phase motors. The energy lost — 9, 10, 13 per cent. — must be 
radiated. The reasons for the higher efficiency are: 

a. Laminated fields and cores which are used are not saturated, air 
gaps are very short, and the iron losses are low. 

b. Commutator losses are absent. 

c. Maximum efficiency of radiation is possible. 

Losses in three-phase motors are produced chiefly in the distributed 
stationary windings in the shell of the motor, and the heat reaches the 
outside or radiating surface easily and quickly, particularly so with 
overloads. Losses in direct-current and single-phase alternating-current 
motors are chiefly in the rotating element, and the heat must pass 
thru the field or external structure to reach the external radiating sur- 
face. The windings of three-phase and single-phase motors are more 
evenly distributed than the windings of direct-current motors. 

2. Energy required for the three-phase system is low; but the motor 
losses are generally overbalanced by the high line losses, making the 
power required about the same as for the single-phase system, as is shown 
by an example which follows. 



166 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

POWER REQUIRED WITH DIFFERENT ELECTRIC SYSTEMS. 



Motor or system. 


3-phase. 


1-phase. 


Direct. 


W eight of cars in train, in tons 


1000 

96 to 93 

1093 

37.5 

91 

1200 

3500 

85 to 88 

96 

1421 

100 


1000 

131 

1131 

37.5 

87 

1300 

11000 

95 

96 

1427 

100 


1000 


Weight of locomotive, in tons 

Total weight of train, in tons 

Speed of train, in m.p.h 

Efficiency of electric motors, per cent 

Power required from contact line 


100 

1100 

37.5 

90 

1222 


Voltage on contact line 


1200 


Efficiency of contact Kne, per cent 


85 


Efficiency of transformers, per cent 

Horse power required from power plant 

Relative power required per train 


86 

1672 

117 



The example is fair for a common 1000-ton freight train at 37.5 
m. p. h.^ or a 500-ton passenger train at 65 m. p. h.^ the train resistance 
being 10 pounds per ton. The constants will vary with the amount of 
money expended for transformers and feeders. On short routes and 
light trains, the showing of the 1200-volt direct-current system is 
improved. 

.3. Energy can be restored to the electric line during braking. 

4. Safety is gained by means of electric braking during regeneration 
of energy. Wrecks which are now caused by excessive wear of brake 
shoes, breakage of brake rigging, and overheated wheel tires in heavy 
trains on the long down-grades, can be prevented. 

5. Weight efficiency of three-phase motors themselves is high. The 
lighter motor reduces the weight of supporting frames, the dead load 
hauled, the cost of motors, and the cost of track maintenance. Some 
three-phase locomotives for freight haulage require ballast. 

6. Maximum torque may be obtained, from the start to the full speed, 
which is a physical advantage in train acceleration. This is offset by 
the greater cost of power, and the greater losses in control and in the 
motors, during acceleration. 

Objectionable characteristics of three-phase motors: 

1. One-speed characteristics are a limitation. For some situations 
both unification of speed and a fixed maximum speed may be advan- 
tageous, but not under present methods in railroading. A distinct loss 
is evident when the "velocity head" cannot be utilized. The speed of 
three-phase motors cannot be varied economically. See Motor Control. 

2. Heavy loads are imposed by the constant-speed motor character- 
istics, and these increase the cost, the size, and the weight of the motor 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 167 

per average h. p. developed. 'The power required for constant speed on 
the up-grade increases rapidly and this requires a relatively high 1- hour 
or continuous capacity in thi-ee-phase motors. See diagram below. 

















"~ 


"'Polver] at bonstant Speed -t)o^tedlj 








1 












Power, at 


Variat)le Speed- Full 
























... 


































































„„ 1 .L 1 








































... 








^ 


1 




b 


































^ 


































































VariaDie 


Speea 


















... },., 


































Constant 




















_ 








— 


— 


— 




Speed 
































— 


— 















































































































_^ 
























































































< 


















^ 














^ 




^ 


































■^ 






































8 




1 


6 


3 





1 


2 











-0 


8 











































3000 



2000 



Horse 
Power 



1000 



35 

30 

2^ Speed 

20 M.P.H. 

15 
10 



Profile 
^ Grade 



10 



20 Miles 30 



40 



50 



Fig. 31. — Diagram of Horse Power from Motors on Constant and on Variable Speed when 
Working on Different Grades. 



The total train weights are equal, 1000 tons. The average speed, 25 m. p. h.; 
and the running time are the same. The average horse power of the locomotive 
motors must therefore be equal. The comparison noted in the diagram is fair. 
Constant-speed locomotive motors are heavier and of greater rated capacity than 
variable-speed locomotive motors. 

3. Air gaps which are used, 1/8 to 1/16 inch, require long bearings 
or frequent renewals, in all heavy work. With the gears or cranks, and 
often collector rings on the shaft, sufficient length for bearings is not 
available. A short air gap clogs with dust and prevents ventilation. 

4. Two overhead wires are required with a three-phase motor. This 
increases the line cost, complication, maintenance expense, and danger. 

5. In design, a 15-cycle, 2-, 4-, 6- or 8-pole, three-phase motor runs 
at a speed of 900, 450, 300 or 225 r. p. m., whereas a series, single-phase, 
or direct-current motor can run at higher variable speeds, for service in a 
rolling country, and may thus be lighter and cheaper. 

Mr. N. W. Storer, in making calculations for motors to fulfil the conditions of the 
New Haven Ralhoad service, found that to accelerate the loads, and to give the 
maximum speed of 65 m. p. h. now provided by the 1000-h. p., single-phase locomo- 
tives, a 1500-h. p. three-phase locomotive would have been required. 



168 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

6. Efficiency of three-phase motors during the starting period is low, 
and this is a drawback in railroading where trains are constantly starting 
and stopping, and where the motors are working at their full speed and 
efficiency for a small fraction of the total time. The rheostatic losses 
in the rotor circuits are such that the average efficiency of the power 
from start to full speed is below 50 per cent, in practice. 

Efficiency is reduced at loaded running speeds by the stray fields 
from primary and secondary circuits, and also by the iron loss in the 
secondary, in which the frequency of alternations is about 6 times the 
frequency of the supply. The iron loss is proportional to the 1.5th 
power of the maximum induction and to the frequency. Considering 
both the primary and secondary, the iron loss of the motor when loaded is 
three times its iron loss when running light. Wilson and Lydall, II, 22. 

7. Torque or drawbar pull of three-phase motors varies as the square 
of the voltage impressed upon the motor, while the torque of series 
motors is quite independent of the voltage impressed upon the motor= 

The contact line voltage, 3000 to 6000 volts, which must be used with 
the three-phase system is relatively low, and the line must be designed 
with many substations and sufficient copper to prevent low voltage. 
Three-phase induction motors on low line voltage fall out, or die 
down, or do not start when overloads occur in freight service. 

A 20 per cent, line loss results in a 36 per cent, loss in drawbar pull. 
The maximum voltage is necessary for efficient and ample drawbar pull, 
and a lower voltage is desirable for running, or exactly the opposite of 
what is furnished under normal conditions. 

Torque or turning effort of three-phase induction motors requires a 
given amount of power to develop it, regardless of the speed at which 
the motor is running. At full speed most of the electrical power applied 
to the motor appears as mechanical output; but, at fractional speeds, the 
same electrical power applied delivers mechanical power in proportion to 
the speed, the balance being wasted in heat. 

The starting torque of three-phase motors, with starting resistance 
in the rotor, for a given current, is the same as the running torque; 
while the starting torque of a short-circuited or squirrel-cage rotor is far 
less than the running torque for the same current. 

8. Motor-car train operation involves difficulties because: 
Diameter of three-phase motors is large, and thus the wheel diameter 

and height of the car body are increased. 

Length of axle is not sufficient for twin motors, used with two-speed 
cascade operation. 

The load on each motor varies with the diameter of its set of drivers. 
About 4 per cent, difference, or 1.6 inches for 42-inch drivers, makes 100 
per cent, variation in work done by a motor. Danger from overloads of 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 169 

the individual motors in the train is thus increased as the drivers wear, 
or are changed; not so with series-wound alternating- and direct-current 
motors. 

SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS. 

Single-phase alternating-current motors for the haulage of trains are 
a recent development. The first installation for railroad trains was made 
in 1907. See "Electric Systems." 

Single-phase motors are best adapted for railroads, where the amount 
of power required is large and concentrated in trains, and where the dis- 
tances are long. The largest users of such motors are: 

New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad; Erie Railroad, 
Rochester Division; Grand Trunk Railway, Port Huron-Sarnia Tunnel; 
Chicago, Lake Shore & South Bend Railway; Rock Island Southern 
Railroad; Spokane & Inland Empire Railroad; London, Brighton & 
South Coast Railway; Swedish State Railway; Southern Railway, 
France; Rotterdam-Hague-Scheveningen, Holland; Prussian, Bavarian, 
Baden State Railways; St. Polten-Mariazell Railroad, Austria; Bernese- 
Alps Railway, Switzerland. 

Types of single -phase motors are two : 

Series motors, with a commutator, for use on either single-phase or 
direct-current circuits, a direct-current motor adapted for alternating- 
current working. The main current or part of it usually flows thru 
both the field and the armature. 

Repulsion motors, with a commutator, for use exclusively on single- 
phase or one leg of three-phase circuits. This motor is built by General 
Electric Company in America and by Allgemeine Elektricitats Gesell- 
schaft in Europe. Repulsion motor armature e. m. f. and current are 
produced by electromagnetic induction, as in the rotor of the three-phase 
motor. The conductors on the armature form the secondary of the 
transformer, and the primary is wound on the motor fields. 

Repulsion motors are used advantageously where the railroad ter- 
minal is not handicapped by direct current. 

Commutatorless single-phase motors which might reduce the main- 
tenance- expense, weight, complication, and valuable space now needed for 
commutators, may yet be developed for electric traction. 

Sub-types of single-phase railway motors are legion. 

In the diagram of connections, the field circuits, the compensating circuits, and 
the armature circuits are shown. The primary and secondary circuits and the vari- 
ous taps at the transformer are not shown. 

(A) Series motor, with simplest and poorest connections. 

(B) Series motor, with reverse series compensating winding, often called a con- 
ductively compensated series motor. 

(C) Series motor, of the inductively compensated type; that is, with short- 
circuited auxihary field winding. 



170 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



(D) Series motor, inductively compensated with secondary compensation. 

(E) Induction motor, simplest connections (Elihu Thomson). Brushes are given 
an angular lead and armature is short-circuited. 





m 






Fig. 32. — Simplest Type of Single-phase Railway Motors. 



(F) Induction motor, plain, with short-circuited armature. 

(G) Induction motor, with secondary excitation. 
(H) Induction motor, series type. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 171 

References on Connections. 

New Haven direct-current-alternating-current Locomotives, E. R. J., Aug. 24, 1907 

p. 280; Murray, A. I. E. E., April, 1911. 
Alexanderson motor: A. I. E. E., Jan., 1908; E. W., Jan. 18, 1908, p. 145; as used 
on N. Y. N. H. & H. motor cars, E. R. J., May 5, 1909, p. 900. 

(B) Erie Railroad, S. R. J., Oct. 12, 1907, p. 661. 

(C) Rock Island Southern Ry., Electric Journal, Oct., 1910, p. 790. 

(H) London, Brighton & South Coast, in Dawson's "Electric Traction for Railways," 
pp. 139 and 161. Allgemeine Elektricitats Gesell., E. W., July 21, 1910, p. 146. 




V-wwv 




Fig. 33. — Diagram of Connections for Bernk-Lotschberg-Simplon Single-phase A. E. C 

Locomotive Motors. 
Transformer voltage 15,000. Motor voltage 420. 



GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ALL SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS. 

Laminated magnetic fields are used, the laminated steel ring core 
being held by an independent steel enclosing case. 

Field windings are distributed in slots, in the entire inner circum- 
ference of the field core, and there are no salient poles. 

Armature windings or coils are made up and connected to the com- 
mutator in the sanie way as in direct-current motors. Resistance leads 
are placed between the coils and commutator of series motors to reduce 
the short-circuit currents induced in the coils by the transformer action 
of the main field, paiticularly when the motor is starting. This resistance 
is not always used with repulsion motors. 

Sparking exists at the commutator brushes largely because the rever- 
sals of current occur at the top of the current wave, which is about 40 
per cent, higher than the mean effective value. 

Compensation or auxiliary series windings in the slots in the pole 



172 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 




Fig. 34. — Details of Connections for Allgemeine Elektricitats-Gesellschaft Single-phase 

Repulsion-type Motors. 








Seque 


ncc 


of S»tche 












S<«p 


Swiuhn 


1 


1 
















9 


10 


II 


12 


1 


2 
















10 


II 


12 


2 


1 


2 


.3 














10 


11 


12 


1 


2 


3 


4 












10 


II 


12 


3 




2 




4 


5 










10 


II 


2 


4 








4 


5 


6 











•1 


? 


5 








4 


5 


6 


7 






10 


II 


12 


6 








, 


5 


6 


7 


a 




>o. 


il 


12 



Fig. 35. 




1 & No. 2 T i T No. 3 & No. 4 

itor Cutout I I Motor Cutout 



9 Out 10 Out 11 Out 12 Out 



Fig. 36. — Details of Connections for Westinghouse Single-phase, Series-compensated Type 

Locomotive Motors. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 173 





Fig. 37. — Visalia Electric Locomotive Motor. 
Single-phase, 15-cycle, 125-h. p., Westinghouse motor. Two views. 



174 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



faces are required to oppose the inductive elements and thereby maintain 
the power-factor of the motor. 

Air gaps are short and fields are weak, to reduce the self induction. 
Air gaps are much longer than those on three-phase motors. 

Transformers are necessary to reduce the trolley voltage, ordinarily 
11,000 volts, to from 250 to 800 for the motor. Much higher voltages 
could be used for the fields alone. 

Potential control is used, and the motor terminals are shifted from 
tap to tap of the step-down transformer. 









...,. 'i 'i 






1 ' V /y^fv'' 






/ jBV^^^^^k^H ' 


U... " ^^. 


^^^Oi 


^:h 


l-jil^BJ 


Mji ^'s^^ 


l^^^pj 


" J 


^ 


1 tfi^feU, 


m 


,m-^l^^\ 


1 


1 


^^^^•^ 


d^ 


'^ '§Ml0i- : 


w 




-M 


_ 





Fig. 38. — Grand Trunk Railway Locomotive Motor. 
Single-phase, 25-cycle, 240-h. p., geared, nose and axle mounted. Driver diameter 62 inches. 

Repulsion motors generally have these added features: 

Brushes are placed 180 electrical degrees apart and short-circuited 
upon themselves. Brushes are given a location about 15 degrees from 
the line of polarization of the primary magnetism. Two pairs of brushes 
are often used, placed at 90 degrees from each other, and one pair is short- 
circuited on itself; and may be varied in position, in motor control. 

Open stator slots are used in place of closed slots. 

Power factor is higher and may approach unity. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 175 

Air gaps are longer than those in series motors. 
Voltages used across the motor are higher. 
Number of poles is reduced and speed is lower. 
Weight and space efficiency are sometimes improved. 

COMMERCIAL SINGLE -PHASE MOTORS. 

Commercial motors used by single-phase railways are noted: 
Compensated-series motors of the Westinghouse Company. 
Compensated-repulsion motors used by the General Electric Company 




Fig. 39. — Winter-Eichberg Single-phase Railway Motor. 
Showing main magnetizing coils and commutating coils in stator. 

prior to 1907. The motor has a short-circuited armature and an extra 
set of brushes for compensation, and to obtain a high power-factor. 

Series-repulsion motors of the General Electric Company, the Alex- 
anderson motor of 1907, which embodied many of the features of the 
repulsion motor and of the compensated-series motor. In presenting 



176 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



'^ A Single-phase Railway Motor," to the A. I. E. E., January, 1908, Mr. 
Alexanderson stated: "In the series-repulsion motor, the problem of 
commutation has been solved"; and Mr. Steinmetz in comment stated: 

"It appears, therefore, that the second and last serious problem of the alter- 
nating-current motor which still remained — the problem of commutation — has been 
solved by the work recorded. The alternating-current, single-phase motor is in prac- 
tically as good shape as the direct-current motor, and the second period in the devel- 
opment of the alternating-current motor is concluded." A. I. E. E., Jan., 1908, p. 38. 




Fig. 40.- 



-WlNTER-ElCHBERG (A. E. G.) 25-CYCLE, SiNGLE-PHASE, 120-H. P RAILWAY MoTOR ArmATURE. 

ShoAving ventilating duct, core and commutator. 



Winter-Eichberg Motor, briefly, has two sets of brushes on the armature, one of 
which sets is short-circuited on itself, and carries the equivalent of the working 
current, while the other carries the magnetizing or exciting current which is supplied 
to the armature winding instead of the field. The arrangement is such as to give 
about the same effect as a commutating pole or commutating field. When starting, 
the field flux is decreased and the armature ampere-turns increased. On the 
Blankanese Ohlsdorf Railway: ''Motors have a 1-hour output of 200 h. p. at 500 
r. p. m. The continuous rating is 100 h. p.; the weight including gear case, 7260 
pounds ; the gear ratio, 3.05. The single-phase stator winding has 6 poles. The work- 
ing winding is in series with an interpole winding, and each of the poles consists of 3 
coils. Every second pole has a commutating coil. For low speeds the commutating 
coils are in series with the working coils. For high speeds the commutating coils 
receive energy at a certain pressure from taps on the exciter transformer. The air- 
gap is 3 mm., yet the power factor remains almost unity. The rotor winding is a 
normal direct-current winding. There are 8 brush holders, 6 of which are short- 
circuited on themselves and 2 are used for exciter brushes." 

Deri single-phase motors of Brown, Boveri & Company are also of the repulsion 
type. The rotor is similar to the armature of a direct-current motor. The brushes 
short-circuit the armature and are so arranged mechanically that the brush axis may 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 177 

be set at various angles with the axis of the stator field. Two sets of brushes are used, 
one being fixed in the polar axis of the stator, and the other so adjustable as to make 
different angles wdth the fixed brushes. The movable brushes are not short-circuited 
on each other, but each is short-circuited on its corresponding fixed brush. If their 
angular distance is 180 degrees, the armature winding acts as the short-circuited 
secondary of a transformer and no torque is exerted. As the angular distance between 
the fixed and movable brush is varied from no degrees to 180 degrees, a torque is 
exerted; and if the armature is allowed to run, the current decreases and the power 
factor increases. The effect of shifting the brushes is analogous to changing the 
impressed voltage on direct-current series motor. 




Fig. 41. — Winter-Eichberg (A. E. G.), 25-cycle, Repulsion Type, 750-volts, 120-h. p., Single- 
phase Railway Motor. 
Used on Blankanese-Hamburg-Ohlsdorf and on London, Brighton and South Coast. 



The stator of the motor is fed from the line, and even for small motors a pressure 
of 3000 volts may be used on the field. The rotor is entirely independent of the line 
and has no connection whatever with the stator circuit. Torque, direction of rotation, 
and speed of the motor are regulated by means of the movable set of brushes. Vari- 
ation of speed is attained by changing the potential of the supply current to the field. 
The windings are simply reduced to two. The commutator is only half as wide as 
on compensated-series motors of equal capacity, and with the same number of poles. 
References: Electrotechnischer Anzeiger, Jan. 2, 1910; Dr. Gisbert Kapp to Inst, of 
Elec. Engineers, Nov. 11, 1909; E. W., July 8, 1911, p. 104. 



Advantages of single -phase commutator motors : 

1. Cost of equipment and of electric systems are reduced. 

2. Cost of operation of the electric system is reduced, 

3. Potential control is more economical than rheostatic, or concat- 
enation, or series-parallel control; it is of a decidedly superior type; it is 

12 



178 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

uniform and does not subject the train to jerks, caused by changing the 
combinations of motors or the poles of motors. 

4. An interchangeable series motor can be provided for either 
alternating- or direct-current circuits, for long distance or for city service 
or for use on three-phase circuits. (Increase in weight and the complica- 
tion of the control for interchangeable circuits must be considered.) 

5. Power required for single-phase motor trains is usually less than 
with direct-current motor trains. Dawson has shown this with various 
average speeds from 20 miles per hour to 28 miles per hour. He assumed 
for the 500-volt direct-current trains a weight of 147.3 tons, and for 
corresponding 6000-volt alternating-current trains, 162.6 tons. The 
equipment used in the trains was eight G.E.-66 direct-current motors 
and eight W.E.-51 single-phase motors. Each train then had 1000-h. p. 
capacity. The load on each train was 16 tons and the distance 3/4 mile. 
The energy consumption per train-mile for the alternating-current train 
was always less than that of the direct-current train when the speed was 
above the average of 20 miles per hour. 

Disadvantages of single -phase commutator motors : 

1. Heating of motors is greater. 

2. Weight per horse power is high. 

3. Torque is pulsating and is lower. 

4. Power factor is not unity. 

5. Cost of motor is higher. 

6. Cost of motor maintenance is higher. 

References. 

Parshall and Hobart: "Electric Railway Engineering." 

Dawson: "Electric Traction on Railways," Chapters on single-phase motors. 

McLaren, in Electric Journal, August, 1907. 

Some of these disadvantages are now discussed briefly. 

1. Heating is greater with single-phase motors than with direct- 
current motors on account of the following four reasons: 

Magnetic losses are larger, because there are well-saturated magnetic 
circuits in the armature of the motor. 

Commutation losses are larger with single-phase than with direct- 
current motors, because the current is commutated at the peak of the 
current wave, which is 40 per cent, higher than the average current shown 
by an ammeter. Commutator difficulties are overcome in several ways: 

(a) Commutation coils are used to induce a counter voltage of suitable phase 
and strength and to destroy the armature reaction. 

(b) Resistance or preventive leads are placed between armature windings and 
commutator bars, to limit the current between any two sets of coils when the carbon 
brush short-circuits the coils. (Brushes must be set to avoid short-circuiting.) 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 179 

(c) Low voltages are used across the armature to reduce the voltage per com- 
mutator bar. 

(d) Diameter or length of the commutator is increased for the proportionately- 
greater current per bar. 

Current losses are larger because the power factor is not unity. The I R heat 
losses in the copper windings are thus greater. 

Efficiency is lower than in other motors because of these larger magnetic, com- 
mutator, and current losses. 

Forced ventilation of alternating-current railway motors has been adopted; and 
it is so effective that heating is not a limiting feature. 

2. Weight of single-phase motors per h. p. is higher because heating 
is greater, and lower voltages and larger commutators must be used. 
Efficiency is lower and dimensions are larger. 

Weight of single-phase motors of 200 to 800 h.p. varies with the ratio 
of gear reduction and the peripheral speed used in design, but it is clear 
that the weight, with or without forced draft, is 40 to 85 per cent, heavier 
than comparable direct-current motors, and this forms a serious handicap. 

Midland Railway of England uses single-phase motors which are 
about one-third heavier than the corresponding direct-current motors; 
but w^hen the whole train is taken into consideration, the additional 
weight amounts to from 12 to 3 per cent., depending on the cars per 
train. This difference would be reduced if the rolling stock were made 
for thru running. Deely, in London Electrician, July 30, 1909. 

3. Starting torque of single-phase motors is lower than with direct- 
current motors. (Starting torque of three-phase motors is much lower 
than that of direct-current motors, but for entirely different reasons.) 
Starting torque depends upon the current; therefore, to increase the 
starting torque it is usual to use a low voltage for the armature, com- 
mutator, and motor. 

"Drawbar pull per pound of motor weight of the single-phase alternating- 
current motor must necessarily be lower than that of the direct-current motor, 
because in the alternating-current motor the magnetic field pulsates between zero and 
a maximum. The same motor, when energized by direct current, with the same 
maximum magnetic flux, would give 41 per cent, more output." (Steinmetz.) 

Starting torque is ample in existing designs, as shown by the records 
of the New Haven passenger and freight locomotives, the motors of 
which are frequently called upon to exert twice their hour rating torque 
in starting, which is more than is expected of direct-current motors of 
equal size; and by the Grand Trunk locomotives which start 1000-ton 
trains on a 2 per cent, grade without taking the slack out of the train. 
The heavy currents used have in no way affected the preventive leads. 
The method used by the General Electric and Westinghouse Companies 
to dampen out the pulsating torque or vibration will be discussed under 
''Drawbar Pull of Electric Locomotives" in the first part of VII. 



180 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



Where the vibration is not dampened, a decided handicap exists, 
particularly on overloads, in small 15-cycle motors. Springs in the 
pinion or gear seem to be mechanically impractical; but where dampen- 
ing springs are used, on locomotives and large motor cars, or where the 
motors are spring mounted, the vibration presents few difficulties. 

COMPARISON OF SINGLE-PHASE AND DIRECT CURRENT MOTORS. 

Sprague, "Electric Trunk Line Operation," A. I. E. E., May, 1907. 



Items. 


Direct current. 


Alternating current. 


Magnet frame 

Field coils 


Integral 


Laminated and less rigid. 


Freely ventilated 

Strains of one character 

Large for ample bearings 

Two to four 


Imbedded in field magnet. 
Rapidly variable; alternating. 
One-third of direct current. 
Four to twelve. 


Strains 


Polar clearance 

Poles and brushes. . . . 


Magnetic flux 

Armature 

Gearing 

Mean torque 


High saturation and torque. . 
Moderate sized, slow speed . . 
Low reduction, large pitch. . 
Maximum torque of a con- 
tinuous character. 

Direct to commutator 

None, due to low speed. .... 

Reliable 

Unity, per pound of weight . . 
53% of one-hour rating 


Weak field, low torque. 
Large diameter, high speed. 
High reduction, weak pitch. 
Half of maximum, and variable 


Armature coils 

Gearing 


without special devices. 
Resistances between coils. 
Gearing generally required. 
Not reHable. 

One half, for same weight. 
35% of one-hour rating. 


Electric braking 

Capacity 

Continuous rating . . . 



Steinmetz, referring to the single-phase motor, says : 

"A single-phase commutator motor with a good power factor must have few 
field turns, many armature turns, a weak field with a strong armature. The armature 
reaction and self induction must be neutralized by a compensated winding; a coil 
surrounding the armature as close as possible and energized either by the main current 
in series and in opposite direction to the armature current or closed upon itself and 
energized by its secondary induced current, — the conductively compensated, and the 
inductively compensated. 

"This means that the alternating-current motor has to be designed with 8 to 12 
poles, where the direct-current motor would have 4 to 6 poles. It means that the 
alternating-current motor has to be supplied with a very large commutator to receive 
the current at 200 volts, while the direct-current motor commutates much smaller 
currents at 600 volts. So weight and size must be sacrificed to get reasonable com- 
mutation." A. I. E. E., Jan., 1908, p. 36. 



Steinmetz, referring to single-phase motors in a discussion on the 
New Haven electrification to A. I. E. E., Dec. 11, 1908, p. 1683, states: 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 181 

"It is especially gratifying to see the statements which have been made by 
unbiased engineers, based upon theoretical considerations, have now been verified by 
practical experience, and that heavy railroad work can be handled by single-phase 
alternating-current motors, tho obviously not with the same high drawbar pull per 
ton of locomotive weight, and possibly, at least for the present, not with quite the 
same reliability of service. 

"This I believe establishes the single-phase alternating-current motor as one of 
the pieces of apparatus by which the future electrification of our country's railway 
systems will be accomplished." 

The force of the comparison by Mr. Sprague has already been lost, 
following great improvements in design since 1906. The handicap in 
railroad-train service of a heavier motor weight and higher maintenance 
has been overbalanced by the elimination of expensive feeders and 
rotary converter substations with attendants. 

High cost of electrical equipment had to be reduced before heavy 
concentrated loads could be handled in long-distance railroad work. The 
single-phase series and repulsion types of motor were necessary in the 
development of the art. It was fruitless to try to block the way; but it 
was wise to state the handicaps which then existed, and to present the 
worst side of the single-phase commutator motor. 

COMPARISONS OF MOTORS. 

Railway motors are compared in a pertinent and relevant way when 
placed on the following basis: 

Weight per h.p. at a given peripheral speed. 

Weight of transformers and of all auxiliary apparatus. 

Weight of complete motor equipment for a given train weight. 

Dimensions; motor clearance for a given driving wheel. 

Peripheral speed of armature for a given train speed. 

Air gap; bearing lengths and area; weight on bearings. 

Power factor at all loads. 

Design, size, and guarantee on commutator and brushes. 

Time during which 150 per cent, of full-load torque can be sustained 
(a) with motors locked, (6) at low speeds, in starting a freight train. 

Operation — heating, sparking, vibration, efficiency. 

Performance — speed-torque-current relation. 

Control scheme to obtain variable speed and uniform acceleration; 
efficiency of control, if in rapid transit service. 

Cost of the equipment for the electric system — the motors, trans- 
formers, contact line, and rotary converter substations. 

Cost of the power service per ton-mile or per seat-mile, based on the 
stops per mile, cars per train, schedule, etc. 



182 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

RATING OF MOTORS. 

Railway motor rating has for its basis the mechanical h.p. output 
which the motor will deliver for 1 hour, with a rise in temperature above 
the surrounding air not exceeding 90° C. at the commutator and 75° C. 
at any other point of the motor. This 1-hour rating indicates the 
maximum output which the motor should be called upon to develop 
during acceleration. 

A. I. E. E. standardization rules call for rating by tests, with natural 
ventilation, in a room having a temperature of 25° C, with the motor 
covers removed, and at the rated voltage and cycles. The h.p. is 
measured at the drivers, and gear and bearing losses are part of the motor 
losses. Factory tests are made on typical runs under cars or locomotives. 
Tests have now been made under all conditions of railway service. 
Service conditions are calculated and the heat developed in the motor, 
and the conduction and convection of this heat thru the frames, for a 
series of typical runs, can be estimated closely. The heat losses are those 
caused by the current in the field, armature, and brush contacts, the 
friction of air, brush, and bearings, and the magnetic losses in the iron. 
The root-mean-square of the heat units which are lost in a given time or 
run must be balanced by the radiation from the frames. 

The capacity required in a motor is measured by the load which it 
will carry continuously, at a fixed voltage, with a rise in temperature 
within safe limits. The motor is then suitable for any service in which 
the square root of the mean square current at any equivalent voltage 
are less than this continuous capacity. The instantaneous loads must 
also be within the commutating limits. This capacity is determined by 
a shop test, made with covers open, in which the rise in resistance of the 
motor windings at the end of a 1 hour run will not exceed 40 per cent. 
The rise in temperature of any part except the commutator will not exceed 
75° C, by thermometer. Owing to the improved ventilation which is 
obtained on a moving locomotive or car, the rise in temperature- 
of the windings at the end of a 1-hour run will not exceed about 
75° C, as determined by increase in resistance, or about 55° C. by 
thermometer. 

Comparisons based on the one -hour rating are misleading until the 
following matters are considered: 

a. Weight affects rating. A heavy motor has a large thermal storage 
capacity, and requires more heat units to raise its metal to a given tem- 
perature in an hour than a light-weight motor of the some rating. The 
continuous capacity of the lighter motor under forced draft will be the 
greater. 

b. Covers are to be off, by the Institute rules, but in service covers 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 183 

are either solid or full of large holes. The 1-hour capacity is about 20 
per cent, less with covers on than with covers off. 

c. Temperature measurements with a thermometer on the core sur- 
faces of the motor show a lower temperature than that determined by 
the rise in resistance. The latter gives an accurate average of internal 
and surface temperature. 

d. Speed-torque characteristics may confuse the ratings. For 
example, series motors are rated at less than one-half their maximum 
speed, while three-phase motors are rated at their maximum speed. 
Thus the 1-hour h.p. rating of direct-current and single-phase appears 
at a great disadvantage in such comparisons. The New Haven geared 
freight locomotive (071) has a continuous capacity of over 1120 h.p., 
corresponding to a tractive effort of 12,000 pounds, and a speed of 38 
m. p. h., yet the maximum tractive effort in starting is over 50,000 
pounds. A three-phase, two-speed locomotive having this maximum 
tractive effort and this maximum speed might be called a 2500-h.p. 
locomotive, and yet it would not have greater service capacity than the 
single-phase locomotive. 

e. Voltage affects rating. For example, the G.E.-205 direct-current 
motor is rated 90 h.p. on 500 volts, 100 h.p. on 600 volts, and only 75 
h.p. on 1200 volts, more insulation being required for the latter voltage. 
Again, the G.E.-69 motor is rated 200 h.p. on 500 volts, 240 h.p. on 600 
volts, and 260 h.p. on 660 volts. 

Continuous capacity of railway motors is recognized by the American 
Institute in the following: 

^'The continuous capacity of the motor is given in terms of the 
amperes which it will carry when run on a testing stand — with covers on 
or off, as specified — at different voltages, say, 40, 60, 80, and 100 per cent, 
of the rated voltage, with a temperature rise not exceeding 90° at 
the commutator and 75° at any other part, provided the resistance 
of no electric circuit in the motor increases more than 40 per cent." 

The author recommends that specifications allow the use of a definite 
quantity of forced air, at a specified air pressure, for cooling; and further 
that the run be at full rated voltage, since in practice it is found that 
runs on lower voltages, either alternating or direct, are decidedly mislead- 
ing, and, in alternating-current practice, are generally valueless. 

Ventilation of motors raises the capacity because the permissible 
output is limited by the maximum temperature rise. In the S. K. C. 
type of motor, designed by Dodd, natural ventilation was obtained by 
leaving both ends of the armature open for the entrance of air, and there 
were ducts thru the frame of the motor, which registered with the 
ducts in the armature perpendicular to the shaft. As a result of un- 
usually good ventilation, the 10-hour rating of this motor was about 



184 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

50 per cent, of its 1-hour rating, with the same heating, as compared 
with a 10-hour rating of but 35 per cent, of the 1-hour rating for small 
railway motors. 

Artificial circulation of air, by forced draft from a fan located either 
on the armature shaft or external to the motor, is used to drive out the 
heat. Artificial ventilation, however, does not increase the rating more 
than 10 per cent, during the first hour's run, but it is of great value during 
the subsequent hours of continued service. 

Ventilation by means of fans in each motor, on the armature shaft, is 
not satisfactory for series motors, because as the load increases the speed 
and amount of air cooling is greatly decreased. Ventilation of railroad 



^p^ • 


"^ 


^ 


<^^^p 


jUj 


p 



Fig. 42. — Pennsylvania Railroad Motor Equipment and Forced Draft Fan. 

Used on motor-car trucks in New York-Long Island service. Axle centers 8 1/2 feet. Entire 

axle enclosed. Motors, direct-current, 215-h. p. each. 

motors and transformers is therefore performed by independent motor- 
driven centrifugal blowers. These furnish air to the motors, at low 
pressure and velocity, thru a flexible conduit made of wire reinforced 
canvas. Clean air from points below the roof is used. 

Ventilation by forced draft is effective for cooling, not only while 
the motor is on the heavy or up-grade service, but while the motor is 
running without current on the down grade, or is standing or waiting to 
take another load in regular service or up the grade. 

Pennsylvania Railroad motors on cars for service on the New York Division use 
forced draft obtained by means of a blower outfit, consisting of a l^h.p., 2,250 r. p.m. 
motor, to the shaft of which at each end, a blower fan 9 inches in diameter 
and 3 inches wide is attached. Each of these fans is capable of forcing between 
400 and 500 cubic feet of air per minute thru the motor, to which it is flexibly con- 
nected. The motor is mounted on the truck below the bolster. The installation is of 
particular interest as being the first where forced ventilation has been used for car 
motors on such a large scale. The 1-hour rating of the motor is 215 h.p. but this 
is raised by means of forced ventilation to about 250 h.p. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 185 



RATING OF LARGE ELECTRIC MOTORS COMPARED. 



Name of railroad 
company. 


Current 

volts 

cycles. 


Ventila- 
tion. 


Continu- 
ous h.p. 
rating. 


1-hour 

h.p. 

rating. 


Ratio of 

continuous 

to 1-hour h.p. 


New York Central 


DC 


Natural . . 


1200 


2200 


.55 




600 V 
\ DC 




1166 
475 


2200 
1100 


.53 


Michigan. Central 


Natural . . 


.43 


Baltimore & Ohio, 1910. 


/ 600 V 
DC 










Pennsylvania 


Natural . . 


1600 


2500 


.64 




650V 

3-P 
15-C 

3-P 
15-C 

3-P 




1200 


2060 
1500 


.58 


Valtellina 


Natural 












Gio\'i .... 


Forced . . . 


1150 


1980 


58 






Simplon .... 


Natural . 




1700 






16-C 

3-P 

25-C 










Great Northern 


Natural . . 
Forced . . . 


1000 
1500 


1700 
1900 


.59 




.•79 


New Haven : Passenger . 


1-P 


Forced . . . 


800 


960 


.83 


Freight.... 


25-C 


Forced . . . 


1120 


1260 


.89 


Freight 




Forced . . . 


1130 


1350 


.84 


Grand Trunk 


1-P 
25-C 


Forced . . . 


570 


720 


79 






Spokane: 1906 Freight. . 


1-P 


Forced . . . 


385 


500 


.77 


1908 Freight. . 


25-C 


Forced . . . 


560 


680 


.83 


Pennsylvania, 1907 


1-P 
15-C 


Forced . . . 


620 


940 


.66 


Southern Ry., France. . . 


1-P 
15-C 


Forced . . . 


1200 


1600 


.75 


Baden State, Weisental. . 


1-P 
15-C 


Forced . . . 


780 


1050 


.74 


A. E. G 


1-P 
25-C 


Forced . . . 


1000 


1400 


.71 



New York Central is estimated by Hutchinson and by Sprague. 

Pennsylvania normal field conditions are distinguished from full field. 

Alternating-current direct-current motors are here rated on alternating current. 

Giovi locomotive motors are rated by resistance measurements. 

Forced draft requires closed motor frames. 

The table was compiled with care, yet in some cases the accuracy is questioned. 

A. I. E. E. 1-hour rating is not in general use for large 600-volt direct-current, 
closed locomotive motors, nor for alternating single-phase and three-phase motors; 
and the rating is often on forced draft, which is 5 to 16 per cent, higher. 



186 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



RATINGS OF LARGE RAILWAY MOTORS WITH FORCED DRAFT. 
Comparison: Temperature of air 25° C; of motor 100° C; A. I. E. E. rules. 



Motor. 


Direct. 


Alternating. 


1-hour rating, natural draft 


100 

105 to 110 

44 to 64 

70 to 83 


100 


1-hour rating, forced draft 


105 to 118 


Continuous rating, natural draft 


50 to 58 


Continuous rating, forced draft 


73 to 88 







The data are approximate, yet they are valuable for comparison. 
Results are affected by the shape, size, and system, as is shown later. 

The ratio of ratings of alternating-current motors with and without 
forced draft is not greatly affected by the size, but for direct-current 
motors the ratio depends largely on the mechanical design of the frame. 

The increase in the continuous rating by the use of forced draft is 
about 55 per cent. This great increase indicates clearly that in the 
future all large railway motors, including direct-current motors, will use 
forced draft because of the lower cost and weight, and safety of insulation. 

All railway motors for train service should be given a continuous 
rating on forced draft. That is the real basis for comparison. 

Single-phase motors are rated on their output with alternating 
current, but when they are designed for interchangeable work, both 
alternating-current and direct-current rating are given. 

The ratio of 300-volt direct-current to 235-volt alternating-current 
rating or output is about 1.50 on an average. 

Ratings are often compared by commercial engineers as follows: 
Eighty per cent, of the 1-hour A. I. E. E. rating gives the continuous 
rating with forced draft. 

Direct-current street car motors, with natural draft, have a continu- 
ous rating of 33 to 43 per cent, of the 1-hour rating. 

Ratings based on a continuous load or tractive effort are preferable 
for electric locomotives which make long runs. 

Selection of the requisite motor capacity involves a careful study or 
comparison of the following: 

Service: single car or train; city street or right-of-way; express or 
local; freight or passenger; city, suburban, interurban, or railroad; stops 
per mile; time of stops. 

Routes, distances, grades, curves. 

Weights of motor cars, locomotives, coaches, and freight cars. 

Speed schedule, and layovers. 

Equipment: motors per train, gearing, drives. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 187 

The capacity required of motors for a given service cannot be con- 
sidered in this work. Authorities to be recommended: 

Parshall and Hob art: "Electric Railway Engineering," Chapter IV. 
Dawson: "Electric Traction for Railways," Chapter IV. 
Wilson and Lydall: "Electrical Traction," Chapter XVIII. 
Carter: Predeterminations in Railway Work, A. I. E. E., June, 1903. 
Renshaw: Railway Motors in Service, A. I, E. E., June, 1903. 
Armstrong: High-Speed Railway Problems, A. I. E. E., June, 1903. 
Armstrong: Heating of Motors (valuable curves), A. I. E. E., June, 1902. 
Hutchinson: Temperature Rise of Railway Motors, A. I. E. E., Oct., 1903. 
See "Power Required for Trains" and Literature which follow. 



MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL DATA. 

NAMES AND RATING OF MOTORS. 

Years 1885 to 1895. 

Direct-current, 500-volt, Standard-gage Street Railway Motors. 



Name of 


Motor 


1-hour 


Year 


Location, type, or detail of 


manufacturer. 


number. 


h.p. 


built. 


construction. 


Daft 


1 
5 


8 

7 


1885 
1888 


Baltimore, Md. 


Sprague 


Richmond, Va. 


l^^i tu^ VJ.Vy . ......... 


6 


15 


1890 


Many cities. 


Thomson- Houston 


F-30 


15 


1889 


Double-reduction gear. 




SRG 30 


15 


1890 


Single-reduction gear. 




SRG 50 


25 


1891 


Single-reduction gear. 




WP 30 


15 


1891 


S.R.G. and well enclosed. 




AVP 50 


25 


1892 


S.R.G. and well enclosed. 


Wenstrom 


4-pole 


15 


1890 


Slotted armature core. 


Short- Walker 


3 


15-25 


1890 


Gearless. 




4 


30 


1895 


Geared. 




10 


50 




Geared. 




15 


80-100 

Years 18 


1890 
30 to 19C 


Brooklyn Elevated. 
)0. 


Westinghouse .... 


1 


15 


1890 


Double-reduction geared. 




3 


20 


1891 


Open-type ; series-connected ; 
machine-wound coils; 4-pole. 




12-A 


25 


1893 


Open type, cast iron. 




38 


38 


1895 


Open type, cast iron. 




38-B 


40 


1899 


Laminated poles. 




49 

50-B 
56 
69 


35 

150 

60 

30 


1897 


















Steel frames. Replaced 3 and 12. 




68 
76 


38 
75 



















188 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



NAMES AND RATING OF MOTORS.— Continued. 
Years 1890 to 1900. 



Name of 


Motor 


1-hour 


Year 


Location, type, or detail of 


manufacturer. 


number. 


h.p. 


buiit. 


construction. 


Westinghouse .... 


83 


110 






92 
93 


35 

50 














101 


40 








121 

800 


85 
27 






General Electric . . 


1892 


Enclosed 4-poie motor. 




1000 


35 


1894 






1200 
2000 


38 
125 


1893 
1893 






Intramural Ry., Chicago. 




51 


80 


1896 


Four-pole. Replaced by G.E. 73. 




52 


27 


1896 


Ventilating ducts in armature, 
core. Replaced G.E. 800. 




55 


160 


1896 


Nantasket Beach, near Boston; 
Buffalo & Lockport, New York; 
Akron, Bedford & Cleveland. 




57 


52 


1897 






58 
64 
67 


37 
60 
38 














1899 


Replaced G.E. 1000. 




68 

78 


175 
35 



















DIRECT-CURRENT, 600- VOLT, COMMUTATING-POLE RAILWAY MOTORS, 

1911. 



Horse power. 


General Electric. 


Westinghouse. 


Allis. 


50 
60 


202-213-216-219 


307-3 12-3 19-B 

306-316 

305-310 


501 


70 


210-218 
214 




75 




90 


304-317 

303 

303-A 




100 


205 




110 




125 


206 




140 


302 




160 


207-211 




175 


301-B 
300-B-308 




225 • 


208-212 

69 
209 




240 




275 






1000 


315 











The 100 h.p. G.E.-205 motors are rated 75 h.p., and the 160 h.p. G. E.-207 
motors are rated 125 h.p., when used two in series on 1200 volts. 



ELECTRIC RAILAYAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 189 



STANDARD THREE-PHASE RAILWAY MOTORS. ^ 


YesiT 1911. 


1-hr. 
h.p. 


General 
Electric 


Westinghouse 
Electric. 


Ganz 
Electric. 


Brown 
Boveri. 


150 








Burgdorf Thun. 


225 






Valtellina 


250 






Valtellina (m.c.) 




425 


Great Northern. 








550 






Simplon. 


600 






Valtellina 


850 








Simplon. 


990 




Giovi 




1200 






ValtelHna 




1500 






Valtellina 















Voltage is 3000, except Great Northern, which is 500. 

SINGLE-PHASE 25- AND 15-CYCLE RAILWAY MOTORS. 



1-hr. 
h.p. 



No. of 
cycles. 



General Electric. 
Used by 



Westinghouse Electric 
Used by 



Siemens Brothers. 
Used by 



A.E.G., Berlin. 
Used by 



50 
75 

100 

115 

125 

150 

170 

200 
225 
240 

315 

400 
675 

75 
90 
100 
125 
150 
175 
200 
220 
460 
525 
800 
1000 



1200 



25 
25 

25 

25 

25 

25 

25 

25 
25 
25 

25 

25 
25 • 

15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 

15 



604. Ballston 

605. Toledo & Chi 
Illinois Traction 



Long Island 

135. Ft. Wayne & 

Springfield. 
132. Windsor; Erie; 

Rock Island. 
Swedish State 



Thamshavn 



Swedish State. 



603. Milwaukee; 

Annapolis; 

New Canaan. 
609. Illinois Trac- 
tion. 



148. Spokane & In- 
land; Chicago, L.S. 
& S.B. 

156. New Haven m.c 
Swedish State. 

151. Spokane 



Hamburg-Alt. 



Midland. 



Oranienburg. 
Rotterdam. 



Experimental. 



Grand Trunk 

New Haven passen- 
ger locomotive. 

403. New Haven, 
freight locomotive. 



New Haven, freight. 



Visalia, m. c. 
135. ..* 



132. Visalia, locomo. 



Oberammergau . . 
French Southern 



French Southern m.c. 
144. Pennsylvania R.R. 
French Southern 



Oberammergau 
Bernese- Alps. . 
Wiesental 



Bernese- Alps. . 
Swedish State. 
Wiesental 



Italian State. 

Prussian State, etc. 

151. Hamburg- 
Altoona. 
London, B. & S.C. 



London, B. & S.C. 



Prussian State. 



Oranienburg. 



Norway. 



French Southern. 
Bernese- Alps. 
Prussian State. 



General Electric motors were withdrawn in 1909. 

The list of users, given under ''Electric System," is more complete. 



190 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



WEIGHT OF DIRECT-CURRENT 500- AND 600- VOLT RAILWAY MOTORS. 

1911. 

General Electric. 



Motor 
No. 



Rated 

h.p. 

1-hour. 



Wt. 

of 
arm. 



Wt. 

of 
motor. 



Wt. of 4- 

motor 
equipment. 



Notes on motor, or on use by 
railroads. 



54 
67 

57 

98 
87 
74 
73 
66 

55 

76 



65-B 

69-B 

65 
70 

84 



202-13 

216-19 

218 

210 

204 

214 

205 

206 

207-11 

208 

212* 

209 



25 

40 

50 
50 
60 
65 
75 
125 

160 

160 

175 

200 

240 

250 
360 
550 



50 

50 

70 

70 

75 

75 

100 

125 

160 

225 

225 

275 



395 
600 

704 
677 
768 
845 
1175 
1327 

1550 

1526 



2000 

1800 

2840 
9500 
7640 



600 
662 



805 



894 
"1052 



3000 



1830 
2400 

2975 
3275 
3510 
3535 
4137 
4375 

5415 

5152 

5302 

12975 

6230 

8855 



12400 



2600 
2887 
3200 
3440 
3080 
3820 
3950 
4250 
4740 
6380 
6230 

11600 



8500 



14140 
15870 
16710 
17190 
19250 
21250 

27050 

26000 

48000 

35400 

30700 

35700 
51900 
67700 

12846 
14060 
15425 
15680 
16252 
18000 
19200 
20600 
23738 
31520 
30700 

46400 



Weight of all motors listed includes 
gear and gear case, box-type motors 
and multiple-unit. M. control. 



Aurora, Elgin & Chicago. 
/ Buffalo & Lockport; 
\ St. Louis &Belleville. 



/ Boston Elevated; 

I Central London, gearless. 

Baltimore & Ohio, 1903 geared. 

MetropoHtan District ; 

Interboro Rapid Transit. 
Paris-Orleans, geared. 
Baltimore & Ohio, 1895 gearless. 
New York Central gearless; weight of 

armature without axles and drivers. 
Motors above No. 200 are interpole. 



Motor 205, rated 75-h.p. on 1200 volts. 



/ Michigan Central, locomotive, 1910. 
\ Baltimore & Ohio, locomotive, 1910. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 191 



WEIGHT OF DIRECT-CURRENT 500- AND 600-VOLT RAILWAY MOTORS, 

1911. 

Westinghouse. 



Motor 
No. 



Rated 
voltage. 



1-hr. 
h.p. 



Wt. of 
armature. 



Wt, of motor 
and gears. 



Wt.of4-motor 
equipment. 



R.P.M. at 
rating. 



12-A 

12- A 

69 

92-A_ 

49 

68-C 
101-A 

38-B 

39 

89 
101-D 

56 

93-A 
305 
305 
112-B 

76 

85 
121-A 

70 
119 
133 
114 \ 
134 / 

86 
113 
103 
315 



500 
500 
500 
500 
500 
500 
500 
500 
500 
500 
500 
500 
500 
500 
600 
500 
500 
500 
550 
550 
550 
550 

550 

550 
550 
600 
600 



25 
30 
30 
35 
35 
40 
40 
40 
50 
50 
55 
55 
55 
63 
75 
75 
75 
75 
85 
115 
125 
150 

160 

200 

200 

300 

1000 



360 
345 
385 
475 



505 

585 
524 



650 

585 
720 

778 



825 

860 

995 

1220 



1340 



1525 



1980 

5300 

10950 



2205 
2270 
1950 
2265 
1925 
2270 
2730 
2350 
2900 
2900 
2730 
3000 
3490 
3550 
3550 
3400 
3480 
4500 
4300 
4800 
4600 
5500 

5300 

.5900. 

6700 

11500 

45000 



10,250 

10,250 

9,100 

10,700 



10,700 
12,500 
12,150 
14,200 
14,200 
12,500 
14,600 
15,000 
16,280 
16,280 
16,000 
19,000 
21,640 
19,400 



21,080 



26,800 



40,000 
Two motor. 



525 
700 
553 
530 
550 
565 
520 
500 



468 
495 
600 
630 
495 
495 
620 



640 



625 



610 
Penn. R. R, 



R.P.M. =M.P.H. X gear ratio X 336 ^ driver diameter. 



192 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



WEIGHT OF DIRECT-CURRENT RAILWAY MOTORS, 1910. 
Allis-Chalmers. 



Motor 


Rated 


1-hr. 


R.P.M. at 


Wt. of 


Wt. of motor 


Wt. of 


No. 


voltage 


h.p. 


rating. 


armature. 


and gears. 


4-motor 
equipment. 


501 


600 
500 


50 
40 






. 2720 


12,560 


301 


550 




2630 


12,300 
12,200 


R-35 


500 


40 


523 


660 


2490 


R-50 


500 


55 


575 


760 


2870 


14,100 


R-75 


500 


75 


510 


1140 


3770 


18,500 



Siemens Brothers. 



54-S 

92-L 

92-L 

72 

17-30 

92-S 

150 



500 


35 


500 


52 


750 


56 


500 


58 


750 


58 


750 


75 


900 


130 



545 


400 


1840 


475 


640 


2870 


520 


640 


2870 


490 


540 


2325 


800 


665 


3175 


710 


735 


3540 


700 




5500 



WEIGHT OF THREE-PHASE RAILROAD LOCOMOTIVE MOTORS. 



1-hr. 
h.p. 



Motors 


Wt. per 


Speed 


used. 


motor. 


R.P.M. 


4 


11,000 


128 


4 


8,800 


300 


4 


11,000 


300 


4 


14,950 


358 


2 


25,000 


224 


2 


27,800 


224 


2 


27,520 


270 


2 


27,000 


224 


1\ 




224 


1/ 







Wt. of all 
elec. equip. 



Manufac- 
turer. 



Railroad 
installation. 



150 
150 
225 
425 
550 
600 
85.0 
990 
1200 
1500 



73,200 
65,000 
66,000 
78,000 
60,000 

54,000 



Ganz 

Brown . . . 

Ganz 

G.E 

Brown . . . 

Ganz 

Brown . . . 
Westing . . 

Ganz 



Valtellina, 1902 
Burgdorf. 

Valtellina(motorcars). 
Great Northern. 
Simplon, 1907. 
Valtelhna, 1904. 
Simplon, 1909. 
Giovi. 

Valtellina, 1906. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 193 



WEIGHT OF SINGLE-PHASE RAILWAY MOTORS. 
Westinghouse, 25 Cycles. 



Motor 
No. 


1-hr. 
h.p. 


Wt. of 

armature. 


Wt. of 

motor 

and gears. 


Wt. of 
4-motor 
equipment. 


Installation for 
railroads. 




AC 


DC 












50 
75 

100 

125 
135 
150 
150 
170 
225 
240 
315 
675 


Long Island: Sea Cliff Div. 
Bergamo-Brembana. 
( Baltimore & Annapolis. 


135 






. . 4500 




132 

148 


156 


94 


150 


360 


1865 


5000 
. . 6100 . . 






\ Rock Island Southern. 
Chi. Lake Shore & S. Bend. 


133 
156 


2705 
1500 


6025 
7950 
13830 
10420 
15660 
16710 
19770 
41600 


41,200 
55,405 


Spokane & Inland loco. 
New Haven motor-car. 
New Haven Switcher. 


151 
137 
130 
403 


3570 
5095 
5850 


47,557 
3 motors. 
66,840 
79,000 
83,200 


Spokane & Inland loco. 
Grand Trunk locomotive. 
New Haven passenger. 
New Haven geared freight. 
New Haven crank-type, 
two motors, freight. 



















Westinghouse 


, 15 Cycles. 




135-A 


90 .... 
125 





4500 

5300 

7468 

19500 


31,000 
35,650 
54,100 




132 


Visalia locomotive. 


156 
144 


150 .... 
460 .... 
800 


2250 
9350 


Weight with quill. 
Pennsylvania R.R. gearless. 
French Southern, 2-motor 




59,200 










freight locomotive. 



WEIGHT OF SINGLE-PHASE RAILWAY MOTORS. 
General Electric, 25 Cycles. 



Motor 
No. 



604 
605 
603 



609 



1-hr. 
h.p. 



Wt. of 
armature. 



Wt. of 

motor 

and gears. 



Wt. of 

4-motor 

equipment- 



Installation for railways. 



50 

75 

125 

125 
150 



1200 



2000 



4500 
5000 
7000 

6000 
8200 



Schenectady-Ballstoh. 
Toledo & Chicago. 
Milwaukee; Annapolis; 

New Canaan. 
New Haven, motor-car. 
Illinois Traction. 



Weight of New Haven 4-motor, No. 156, 25-cycle equipment without direct- 
rent control equipment is 47,250 pounds. 
13 



cur- 



194 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



WESTINGHOUSE MOTORS. ELECTRICAL DATA. 

Direct-current, 500-600 Volts. 



Motor 

No. 


1-hr. 
h.p. 


Arm. 
diam. 


Bore of 
poles. 


Field 

coil 

turns. 


Size of wire 
or strap. 


Field 
Res., 
ohms. 


Arma- 
ture 
slots. 


Coils 
per 

slot. 


Armature 
turns; sized 
wire or bar. 


Arm. 
Res. 
ohms. 


92-A 


35 


13 


13 3/8 


125 


5/16x1/2 


.340 


41 


3 


3 turns 10 


.340 


101-B 


40 


14 


14 3/8 


110 


5/16x5/8 


.296 


37 


3 


3 turns 9 


.290 


93-A 


55 


15 


15 3/8 


78 


3/64x1 1/4 


.166 


45 


3 


3 turns 10 


.148 


112-B 


75 


15 


15 3/8 


60 


1/16x1 1/4 


.094 


45 


5 


2 3/64x1/2 


.090 


121-A 


90 


17 


17 3/8 


49 


1/16x1/4 


.087 


41 


5 


1 3/64x5/8 


.070 


119 


125 


17 


17 7/16 


42 


3/32x1 3/8 


.051 


37 


5 


1 1/16x5/8 


.050 


114 


160 


17.5 


18 


40 


7/64x1 3/4 


.035 


33 


5 


1 1/10x1/2 


.037 


113 


200 


19 


19 1/2 


36 


1/8x2 


.025 


31 


5 


1 1/8x1/2 


.030 





Commutator data. 






Armature bearings at 




Motor 








Brush 






Shaft 














No. 


Diam. 


Length. 


Bars. 


Brush- 
es. 


section. 


Commutator. 


Pinion. 


at pinion. 


92-A 


9 


3 5/8 


123 


2 


1/2x1 1/2 


3 x7 1/2 


3 x6 1/2 


2 3/4 


93-A 


10 1/4 


4 11/16 


135 


2 


1/2x2 


3 3/4x8 7/16 


3 1/2x7 


3 3/8 


112 


12 1/2 


5 1/2 


225 


2 


1/2x2 


3 3/4x8 7/16 


3 1/2x7 


3 3/8 


121 


14 1/2 


6 


205 


3 


1/2x1 3/4 


4 xS 1/2 


3 3/4x7 


3 3/4 


119 


14 1/2 


6 23/32 


185 


3 


1/2x2 


4 xlO 


3 3/4x7 


3 3/4 


114 


14 1/2 


6 3/4 


165 


4 


5/8x2 


4 1/2x10 


3 3/4x7 1/4 


4 1/8 


113 


16 3/4 


9 11/16 


155 


4 


5/8x2 1/4 


4 3/4x10 


4 x7 


4 3/8 



Length of commutator is from end to lug. Two brushes are used per holder. 
Wedges are used to hold armature coils of 25- to 75-h. p. motors, and bands on 
larger motors, with 4 to 5 bands on the core, and one band at each end of coils. 
Several modifications exist for each motor. 



DEVELOPMENT OF RAILWAY MOTOR DESIGN. 

In general, railway naotor design must embrace machinery which 
furnishes the greatest possible output at the least expense in first cost 
and in performance. This involves the best materials, the highest 
practical speeds, and the best arrangement of the materials in the design. 
Steel with very high permeability, 100,000 lines per square inch, in both 
solid and sheet form is utiHzed. Mica and asbestos are the insulating 
materials having the greatest heat-resisting qualities. High speeds are 
economical when expensive constructive features are reduced. Weight 
may be decreased by more efficient materials, interpole motors, artificial 
cooling, and lower cycles. When weight of motors used in rapid -transit 
service is over-reduced, mechanical and electrical excellence are sacrificed. 

Some of the details of development follow: 

1. Magnet frames of direct-current motors were originally bipolar, 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 195 

and of cast iron. Sprague motor frames were of good wrought iron. 
Enclosed Thomson-Houston waterproof motors of 1891, and the G.E.- 
800 motor of 1892, and all modern motors have used cast steel frames 
largely because the improved magnetic qualities of steel allowed a reduc- 
tion in the weight and space. Some of these had consequent poles, but 
they were soon abandoned for the standard, 4-pole motor, which was 
introduced in the AYestinghouse No. 3 open motor of 1891. 

Field frames of direct-current motors are divided as follows: Small 
motors, 30- to 80-h.p., have the cast steel frames divided horizontally, 
and the center lines of the 4 poles are at an angle of 45 degrees with the 
horizontal; and larger motors either have their frames split, at an angle of 
45 degrees, and 2 poles set horizontally and 2 vertically, or a box type frame 
is used which is not split. Small motors are opened by swinging the lower 
half downward, to the repair pit, on hinges which are placed on the side 
opposite the axle. Armature bearings are bolted to the upper or to 
the lower field. Large motors are inspected by running the truck out 
from under the locomotive or car. If the field is divided, the upper half 
is opened to get at the fields and armature. Box type or solid fields 
require that the motor be removed entirely from the truck and the arma- 
ture to be taken out at one end. Some motor frames, G.E. 70 and 74 of 
1904, are split horizontally, w^ell above the center line, to get a small 
upper frame, for facilitating quick repair work. 

Box type frames were introduced about 1898. They have a single 
magnetic casting of soft steel, in the form of a cube with well rounded 
corners. Maximum capacity, minimum space, rigidity of frame, and 
perfect alignment of brush-holders and bearings are obtained. Housings 
for the bearings are bolted against well-fitted cylindrical heads on the 
field frames. Armature, field coils, and pole pieces are removed thru 
the end of the frame. The armature is taken out by removing one frame 
head and then lifting and sliding the armature horizontally thru the 
opening; or the motor is set on end and the armature lifted vertically; 
or, again, the motor is put in a lathe, the armature is supported on'its 
center line, and the motor frame rolled parallel to the shaft. ' 

Magnet frames of alternating -current motors consist of an outer steel 
casing forming a structural frame for the motor. The frame encloses 
a cylindrical field ring or stator built up of thin annular laminations, 
insulated from each other by j apan or enamel , and securely bolted together. 

Single-phase and three-phase fields of 50- to 150-h.p. motors are made 
in one piece, and cannot be divided like those of direct-current motors. 
Armatures are taken out as in box type frames. 

Gearless motor fields and frames are split horizontally and are removed 
in halves, the field windings being disconnected for that purpose. New 
York, New Haven & Hartford motor frames for gearless passenger 



196 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



locomotive are split, but the geared and the crank type freight loco- 
motive motor frames are solid. The frames of the motors for the freight 



^^ 




locomotive are built up of steel plates and structural angles. The motor 
is stiff, and light in weight, and the field laminations are well exposed. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 197 

Enclosure of the entire motor has finally been effected, at first by 
protecting it with canvas or galvanized jron, and then by the use of most 
of the magnet frame, in the ''waterproof motor" of 1891. Finally the 
frame entirely enclosed the motor. The covers over the commutators 
of small motors are closed, while the covers of large motors and also the 
upper frames often have many half-inch holes. See Ventilation. 

The axle is enclosed on the Pennsylvania motor cars to keep out dust. 

Forced draft has been adopted to keep out the dust, to ventilate, and 
to cool large motors. Examples: 210-h.p., direct-current types for Long 
Island Railroad; 275-h.p., direct-current types for Michigan Central 
Railroad; 240-h.p. single-phase types, for New York, New Haven & 
Hartford Railroad; 325-h.p., three-phase types, for Great Northern 
Railway. Motors located up in the locomotive are not enclosed. 

2. Poles of direct -current motors were originally of cast or wrought iron 
or steel, but are now of laminated steel with magnetically saturated faces, 
bolted on the cast-steel field frame. This plan w^as introduced in the 
Westinghouse-38 motor of 1899. 

Commutating poles were developed about 1907. A small auxiliary 
interpole or commutating pole placed between the main poles, holds the 
neutral point and thus reduces the sparking. Non-commutating pole 
motors cannot be relied on for more than 50 to 75 per cent, overload, to 
make up lost time or to accelerate on heavy grades, while commutating 
pole motors will take care of from 150 to 200 per cent, overload for 
emergency intervals without destructive sparking. Commutating pole 
motors, without other changes, allow the use of about 50 per cent, 
greater voltage per bar; but the proportion of copper to steel is increased. 

Poles of alternating-current motors are enclosed by a cylindrical steel 
ring. They are built of thin, annular laminations held by bolts which 
run parallel to the shaft. The interior portions of the punchings are 
shaped to form four or more poles, which are slotted for the reception of 
the field windings. They are often split between the middle of two field 
coils (not between adjacent coils), and only a single connector of the 
compensation windings is disturbed. St. Ry. Journ., Aug. 28, 1907, p. 281 . 

There are no inner projecting poles in single-phase motors. There 
are no fixed poles in three-phase motors, since the field revolves or pro- 
gresses electrically. 

Sparking at commutators is the cause of most all motor trouble. It 
disintegrates brushes, burns copper, and increases the brush friction. The 
copper and carbon dust works into windings, brush holders, and insula- 
tion, and causes flash-overs and breakdown of insulation. With good 
commutation, soft high-grade carbon brushes are used, brush tension and 
vibration are greatly reduced, and a high glaze, which prevents commuta- 
tor wear and increases the life of the brushes and commutator, is formed. 



108 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

3. Field coils with both shunt and series windings were found in the 
first direct-current railway motors. Series motors of 1885, built by 
Field, and the 1888 Sprague motors had 2 fields and 6 field coils 
which, in starting a car, were first connected in series, partly for use as 
resistance, and then in multiple groups. Thomson-Houston motors used 
field loops by means of which the turns per coil were varied. Magnets 
were horseshoe-shaped and had two coils until about 1891. Railway 
motor field coils were simplified about 1890 by a change to a plain 
series winding on brass spools. The cotton-covered, wire-wound coils 
were changed to mica- and asbestos-covered copper straps. 

The modern coil is of the mummified type; and it is heavily wrapped 
and made complete without any outside metallic retaining spool, except 
for some locomotive motors. The coil is placed in a vacuum which 
exhausts the moisture and air, after which the insulating compound, 
which is forced in, penetrates every part of the coil. High temperatures 
and a long time are required for this treatment. The coil then resists the 
action of water and air to which it is exposed, yet radiates the heat. It 
is compact, and vibration and chafing of wires are prevented, yet it will 
not warp when heated repeatedly by overloads. Outside protection 
against mechanical injury is obtained by wrapping tape, or cotton web- 
bing thoroly filled with japan. The coil is clamped to the frame by 
heavy, flat spring hangers after the pole pieces are bolted in the motor. 

Field coils of three-phase motors are similar to those of generators 
and are insulated with tape and mica, and are mummified. The coils 
are of the distributed type. See specifications of Giovi locomotives. 

Field coils of single-phase motors are distributed windings, carried in 
slots in the pole faces. The field windings are in two independent sec- 
tions, the main field for energizing and producing the effective magnetic 
field and the other, an auxiliary, or compensating winding, which simply 
balances the armature reaction on the field. In other words, the com- 
pensating windings counteract the armature inductance, and improves 
the commutation by compensating the armature reaction; and the field 
distortion is thereby reduced. The coils of the main exciting windings 
are connected in parallel to reduce the self induction. Many methods 
of winding are used in the repulsion and series type of single-phase motors. 

4. Air gap length, between the armature and stator, are grouped. 
Direct-current designs use 6/32 inch for 75-h.p.; 7/32 inch for 125-h.p.; 
8/32 inch for 160- to 225-h.p.; 6/32 inch for 275-h.p. Michigan Central 
locomotive motors; 8/32 inch for 550-h.p. New York Central and 9/32 for 
1250-h.p. Pennsylvania locomotive motors. 

Single-phase motor designs use about 4/32 inch for the 240-h.p. 
New Haven passenger locomotive motors; 3/32 inch for 390-h.p. 
Weisental locomotive motor; and for G. E.-603, 125-h.p. motors. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 199 

Three-phase motor designs use smaller air gaps. Valtellina 200- to 
600-h.p. motors use 1.5 mm., Simplon Tunnel 450-h.p. motors 1.5 mm., 
while Great Northern Railway 425-h.p. motors use 1 /8 inch or 3.2 mm. 

Air gaps for comparable motors are: 

Direct-current, 1/4 inch or .250 inch. 

Single-phase, 1/8 inch or . 125 inch. 

Three-phase, 2.1 mm. or .083 inch. 

The proportion is as 1000 to 500 to 333. 

In the 15-cycle motor, a considerably larger air gap can be used than 
on the 25-cycle, without reducing the power factor below desirable limits. 

5. Armatures of small motors were at first of large diameter. The 
armature of the Short 35-h.p. gearless motors of 1890 were heavy, rigid, 
and inaccessible, and of large diameter — about 36 inches. The famous 
^^W.P.," 25-h.p. single-reduction geared motor of 1891 had a diameter 
of 19 1/4 inches; and the flywheel effect, in starting and stopping, of such 
armatures was a bad feature. Cores were soon reduced in diameter 
and increased in length to permit rapid acceleration and retardation. 
The clearance between frame and roadbed was thereby increased. Ven- 
tilation of armature cores by means of radial slots did not receive suffi- 
cient consideration until the Walker motor No. 4 was developed in 1895 
and the G. E.-52 motor in 1896. See Ventilation, under '^Rating of 
Motors.'^ See '^ Armature Speed," in section 9, which follows. 

Armature cores of direct-current, single-phase and three-phase 
motors are made up of soft laminations, often insulated with japan. 
They are generally mounted by fitting and carefully forcing the laminated 
core and commutator shell on a one-piece, cast-steel spider. The shaft 
is then independent, and is forced on under a pressure of 30 to 70 tons 
and keyed to the spider. Armatures frequently take up most of the 
space between the drivers. Armature core dimensions are given in the 
next table. 

6. Armature windings of the first railway motors had hand-wound 
surface coils. These have been superseded by machine-wound coils with 
straight-out barrel winding imbedded between teeth of a slotted arma- 
ture; and they are formed and insulated before being placed in the core. 

Wire-wound armatures of 50- to 90-h.p. motors have three or two 
turns per coil and usually three coils per slot. Bar- or strap-wound coils 
are used on large motors, and have one or two coils in the same slot 
assembled and insulated together. The insulated wire or strap is vacuum- 
impregnated, treated with insulating compound, tapped, and sealed. 

Armature windings of single-phase motors are generally series-drum 
windings with three coils per slot, as in direct-current motors. The one 
turn used per commutator segment reduces the inductive effect and the 
sparking. Great care is taken to secure extreme rigidity. 



200 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Strap-wound coils of large armatures are generally divided at the rear. 

Binding is required to hold the coils in place, No. 14 to 17 B. & S. 
gage, tinned, steel wires being used, the number and width depending 
upon the size and speed of the armature. 

Insulations used for motor windings are doubled cotton, tape, paper, 
asbestos, linseed oil, varnishes, and particularly mica. All of the insula- 
tions except asbestos and mica become brittle and char at 100° C. The 
highest temperature on factory tests, which is safe, is about 100° C. 
Under service conditions, with the better ventilation, coils run cooler. 

7. Commutators were originally of small diameter and poorly insu- 
lated, but are now long, of large diameter, and have ample stock. 

Commutator bars are generally of hard-drawn copper, built up on a 
cast-steel sleeve, with a steel cone ring and nut for small motors, and a 
number of tap bolts between two V-rings on larger motors. The wearing 
depth is from 7/8 to 1 inch. The coil leads are soldered into the bars. 

Commutators for single-phase motors conform to direct-current prac- 
tice, but are larger and wider. Connections between the armature wind- 
ings and the commutator bars sometimes require resistance leads to reduce 
the short-circuit current. These leads are insulated like the main arma- 
ture winding, and are placed in slots beneath the armature winding proper. 
They are a source of danger when the motor is overloaded for long periods, 
yet good results are being obtained. Commutators on New Haven 
locomotives run 100,000 locomotive miles before being turned. 

Slotting the hard mica between commutator bars is a recent develop- 
ment, to increase the life of the commutator and the brush. Slotting 
to a depth of 1/16 of an inch by simple automatic tools increases the life 
of old motors about 800 per cent., and of new motors 300 per cent. 

8. Brushes were originally of copper set at an angle with the com- 
mutator. Van Depoele introduced carbon brushes in 1884. Good 
carbon was used as early as 1889. 

Sparking at brushes is no longer destructive. The relation of the 
field magnetism to that of the armature is understood; and the use of the 
commutating pole in direct-current motors and of compensating coils in 
single-phase motors keep the neutral point absolutely at the brush con- 
tact. The commutating-pole motor has doubled the life of brushes. For 
data on life and wear, consult Elec. Ry. Journ., June 19, 1909, p. 1108. 
The life of carbon brushes averages 15,000 car-miles for direct current, 
and 8000 for single-phase motors. New Flaven locomotive brushes 
have a life of about 32,000 locomotive miles. 

Armatures are so connected in standard four-pole direct-current 
motors that one pair of brushes holders suffice, where two pairs are re- 
quired in single-phase motors. The field is often reversed to change the 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 201 

direction t^f motion, and to keep the positive lead connected to the same 
brush. The Deri induction brushes are shifted mechanically. 

Brush-holder design has been well perfected by the use of rigid 
supports, by longer creepage distances to prevent flashing thru carbon 
dust, by the use of mica tubes for internal insulation and of porcelain 
rings for external protection, and by the use of light but uniform brush 
pressure over the working range of wear. 

Brushes suitable for one motor are not satisfactory for another. 
Manufacturers offer a complete range of brushes for each motor, and have 
collected the data required on brush holders, brush sizes, current density, 
hardness, abrasive qualities, commutator speed, and the commutation or 
other peculiarities of each motor. 

9. Armature speed with the first motors was high. It has been 
reduced by modifj'ing the magnet frames, increasing the number of poles, 
and lengthening the armature core. The tabular data on speeds given 
below are of interest in design, particularly those on the comparative 
peripheral speed of armatures in feet per minute. 



SPEED OF 


ARMATURES 


OF RAILWAY MOTORS. 




Nanle of 


Motor 


Car 


Gear 


Motor 


Driver 


Arm. 


Core 


Periphera 


railway. 


h.p. 


m.p.h. 


ratio. 


r.p.m. 


diam. 


diam. 


width. 


speed arm. 


Early electric 


15 


20 


12.00 


2447 


33 


12.0" 


10.0" 


7690 


Modern electric. . 


25 


30 


4.00 


1221 


33 


15.0 


12.0 


4800 


Interurban 


75 


50 


3.50 


1780 


33 


15.0 


16.0 


2225 


Interstate 


125 


60 


3.00 


1680 


36 


17.0 




7480 


New York Central 


240 
550 


50 
60 


1.88 
Direct 


877 
458 


36 

44 








New York Central 


29.0 


19.0 


3470 


X. Y. N. H. & H. 


150 
240 


50 
60 


3.30 
Direct 


1320 
320 


42 
63 








X. Y. X. H. & H. 


39.5 


18.0 


3310 


X. Y. X. H. & H. 


315 


35 


2.32 


187 


63 


39.5 


13.0 


1935 


X. Y. X. H. & H. 


675 


35 


Crank 


206 


57 


76.0 


13.0 


4100 


Pennsylvania.. . . 


1250 


60 


Crank 


280 


72 


56.0 


23.0 


4100 


Michigan Central. 


275 


35 


4.37 


1070 


48 


25.0 


11.5 


7005 


Grand Trunk-. . . . 


240 


35 


5.31 


1007 


62 


30.0 


14.75 


7910 


Great Xorthern.. 


475 


15 


4.26 


358 


60 


35.75 


16.25 


3374 


Valtellina 


1500 


40 


Crank 


225 


59 


68.0 




4000 


Simplon 1907 


550 
850 


43 
43 


Crank 
Crank 


238 
320 


61 
49 








Simplon 1909 


43.3 




3250 


Giovi 1909 


990 
250 


28 
60 


Crank 
2.23 


224 
917 


42 
49 








Paris-Orleans.. . . 


23.5 


12.00 


5650 


B. & 0., J895 . . 


270 
200 
275 


26 
35 
35 


Direct 
4.26 
3.25 


146 

1195 

750 


60 
42 
50 








B. & 0., 1903 . . 








B. & 0. 1910 .. . 


25.0 


11.50 


4888 


Bernese Alps. . . . 


1000 


26 


3.25 


530 


53 


47.0 




6500 


Weisental 


390 


46 


Crank 


337 


47 


59.0 




5200 



202 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Armature speeds of three-phase railway motors do not ex-ceed the 
fixed synchronous speed for which the motors are designed. 

Armature speeds of single-phase railway motors generally run 10 per 
cent, higher than that of the direct-current motors. 

R. P. M. =M. P. H. X gear ratio x 336 -i- driver diameter in inches. 

The feature which limits the speed of trains is generally the armature, 
not the track. 

Peripheral speeds of armatures, geared to or mounted on driver 
axles, are generally less than the linear train speed in feet per minute. 

10. Bearings have been improved by changes in the material, dimen- 
sions, and in the method of lubrication. 

In Westinghouse practice, for 60-h.p. motors, solid bushings of cast 
iron are used for armature bearings, and split malleable iron bushings, 
lined with babbit metal, for axles. Large motors have solid phosphor 
bronze shells for armatures and split shells for axles, and 1/10 inch of 
babbit soldered to the bronze. All bearings are lubricated by oil- 
saturated wool waste as in M. C. B. boxes in steam railroad practice. 

In General Electric practice solid brass sleeves, with a thin lining of 
babbit metal, are used. In case the babbit is melted by overheating, 
the armature does not rub on the poles. The axle bearings are split. 
All brasses are cut away so that the oily wool waste comes into contact 
with large surfaces. 

Armature bearings are generally restricted by the available space. 
After the armature core and winding have been provided for, and the 
commutator or collector has been added, little room may be left on the 
shaft for bearings; and it has been customary, since 1897, to place the 
bearings under the armature windings and also under the commutator. 
These restrictions do not apply where the motor is mounted above the 
drivers, and the shaft may extend clear across the locomotive. 

Grease was the lubricant in the early days. The change to oil 
reduced the cost of inspection and maintenance, doubled the life of 
bearings, and decreased the danger of armatures rubbing on the poles. 

Data on bearings of single-phase quill-mounted motors are given in 
Elec. Ry. Journ., Dec. 12, 1908, p. 1558. 

Seats of armature bearings in the field frame are often bored 1/16 
inch above the pole center to allow for long wear. 

Three-phase motors have very small air gaps, 1/8 to 1/16 inch and 
in heavy service, long bearings or frequent renewals are required. 

11. Gearing from 1888 to 1891 was double-reduction, and entailed 
high maintenance expense. In the early Sprague roads the small motors 
ran at a normal speed of 1300 to 1500 r. p. m. Four-pole motors, in- 
troduced by Wenstrom, Short, and Westinghouse about 1890, allowed 
single-reduction gearing. The ratio of gearing was soon changed. 



ELECTRie RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 203 

from about 12 to 1, to 4 to 1. Pinions of rawhide, sheet steel, bronze, 
etc., have been replaced by forged steel. The gears are now enclosed in 
gear cases. Spur gearing has won out in the competition with bevel 
gearing, worm gearing, hydraulically connected gearing, belts, wire rope, 
links, chains, etc. 

Gears are used at each end of the armature shaft on the freight loco- 
motives of the Baltimore & Ohio, Michigan Central, Great Northern, 
New Haven, Bernese-Alps, and other railroads. 

Gearless motors are used on the passenger locomotives of the New 
York Central, Baltimore & Ohio, New Haven, etc., the motor being 
mounted on the axle or on a quill surrounding the axle. 

Gear diametrical pitch is 3 teeth per inch for 35- to 75-h.p. motors, 
2.5 for 90 to 250-h. p. motors, and 13/4 for 315-h.p. freight locomotive 
motors on the New Haven. The face is 5 to 5 1/4 inches wide. 

Gears may be in one piece or split, and of cast steel which may be 
bolted, keyed, pressed, or shrunk on either the axle or an extension of 
the wheel hub. Split gears with 4 bolts are used on motors up to 75 h. p. 

Gears for heavy railway motors consist of a forged steel rim mounted 
on a cast steel center. The rim may thus be replaced when worn out. 

Pinions are now used which have great strength and uniformity of 
metal without sacrificing toughness. The steel is reheated after being 
machined, to gain in wearing qualities. A cast-steel gear ordinarily 
outlasts three soft pinions, but with improved types the pinion lasts as 
long as the gear. A great saving is thereby made in the cost of renewals. 

Railway motors have notoriously noisy gearing, which is a disturber 
of the peace, and ordinarily is a nuisance. The vibration and noise 
indicate wasted energy. The noise comes from rapidly repeated blows 
of teeth, which cause friction and rapid wear. Gearing in which the 
teeth are not parallel to the shaft, e. g., helical gears which have sliding 
contact, should again be tried out. Some improvement is needed. 

Gearing is not used advantageously for motors, above 2300-h.p. size 
for high-speed passenger locomotives in heavy service. Even when 
lubricated with oil under pressure, the teeth of spur gears are not able 
to withstand the shock and wear. The bearings wear and soon change 
the gear teeth diameters and alignment. 

12. Motor axles of open-hearth steel, with 80,000-pound tensile 
strength, 20 per cent, elongation, and 25 per cent, reduction in area, have 
been standardized as follows: 



204 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

SUMMARY OF AXLE AND GEAR DATA. 



Journal 


Motor 


Gear 


Wheel 


Distance 


Center of 


Maxi- 


Horse 


Length of 


Diameter 


size. 


fit. 


fit. 


fit. 


bet. hubs. 


journals. 


mum wt. 


power. 


gear seat. 


gear hub. 


3 3/4x7 


4 1/2 


5 1/2 


5 7-16 


48 


75 


15,000 


45-45 


6 1/8 


8 


4 1/4x8 


5 


6 


5 15-16 


48 


75 


19,000 


45-65 


6 1/4 


8 


4 1/4x8 


5 1/2 


6 


5 15-16 


48 


75 


22,000 


65-100 


6 1/8 


8 


5 x9 


6 


7 


6 15-16 


50 


76 


27,000 


100-150 


6 1/8 


9 1/2 


5 x9 


6 1/2 


7 


6 15-16 


50 


76 


31,000 


150-200 


6 1/8 


9 1/2 


5 1/2x10 


7 


8 


7 15-16 


50 


77 


38,000 


200-250 


6 1/8 


10 1/2 


8 xl3 






16 15-16 


55 


82 


70,000 


315- 




13 













13. Suspension of motors was provided in the first motors by mount- 
ing them on the car floor and connecting them to the axles by belts, wire 
rope, or sprocket chains and often thru a friction clutch. A direct drive 




Fig. 44. 



-New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad Passenger Locomotive Motors, 1906. 
Motor is quill mounted on axle and spring mounted in drivers. 



between motors and axles by means of gearing, and also by means of 
crank rods, was soon developed. An outline is presented: 

a. Nose suspension began with the Bentley-Knight motors of 1884. One end 
of the motor and half of the weight were supported directly on the axle bearings, and 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 205 

the opposite or armature end rested on a cross bar, supported by the side frames 
of the truck; and m such a way as to provide parallelism between the armature shaft 
and the axle; i.e., the distance between the centers of the gear pitch circles was fixed. 
Nose suspension is the simplest and it has superseded all others. 

b. Cradle suspension was used in the Westinghouse motors of 1890. The entire 
motor was placed on levers or horizontal bars at each side of the motor, and all of the 
motor weight was transmitted to the axle and frame indirectly thru springs. Two 
motors per truck were used, and one motor balanced the other. Each motor formed 
a lever fulcrumed at the axle. This scheme became obsolete due to the higher first 
cost and the inaccessibility for repairs. 

c. Side-bar suspension used on the General Electric No. 800, 1200, and 2000 
motors of 1893 removed the dead weight of the motor from the axle. The side bars. 




Fig. 45. — Gibbs Cradle Motor Suspension. 
As used on Metropolitan Railway, London. 



resting entirely on springs, carried the motor. One lug on either side was so placed 
that the suspension was thru the center of gravity of the motors. There was no 
weight resting on the axle boxes. In addition to the eUmination of pounding, the 
alignment used was advertised by the General Electric Company as preventing the 
wear of the boxes and of the gears. 

d. Yoke suspension was a modification in which the weight of the motor was 
largely suspended from points in line with the axis of the armature shaft, or practic- 
ally the center of the weight of the motor. The motor was virtually balanced. 
General Electric bulletin 4113, of July 28, 1902, stated: "The yoke suspension is 
especially recommended, as with this suspension the weight of the motor is carried on 
springs placed on the side frames of the car track," and because the hammer blow of 
the track is reduced to a minimum. 

e. Walker spring suspension of 1895, while not in use, deserves a description. 
The motor, M, is suspended entirely on springs at S and T. Side bars, F, are jour- 
naled on the axle, A, and at the armature shaft; and they are not connected to the 
motor frame, and simply keep the pinion and gear in mesh. The nose bar, C, sup- 
ports half of the motor weight, thru springs located on the truck cross bar. Bearings 
ran longer, the hammering of the track was less, the strains and shock on the pinion 



206 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



and gears were decreased, the crystallization of wires and insulation was eased, and 
the total maintenance expense was decreased. 

Nose suspension is an unsatisfactory plan, because, with one end of 
the motor mounted rigidly on the two axle bearings, and the other end 
or nose on the cross bar, there will always be heavy, non-spring-borne 
weights from axles, drivers, and bearings. The entire weight of the motor 
should be mounted on suspension springs, which can be placed at the 
center of gravity, or, better, at the center of rotation of the motor. A 
special helical spring could be inserted between that part of the motor 
casting surrounding the axle and the axle bearings — the C. J. Field 




Fig. 46. — Diagram of Walker Method of Motor Suspension. 



scheme, used in 1885. If such suspension springs Avere used, to ease and 
attenuate the shocks or track pounding, the present excessive cost of 
maintenance and renewals at track crossings, switchwork, and curves, 
and of the motors themselves would be greatly decreased. Track main- 
tenance cost is not higher with electric than with steam power, at least 
this is not often admitted; but that the cost of maintenance of special 
work on electric roads is excessive has been definitely proved. 

Suspension of motors for gearless locomotives involves a field frame 
independent of the truck frame, or a part thereof, but, in either case, 
spring-suspended. The armature of gearless locomotive motors at first 
was placed on the driver axle. Its dead weight, combined with a low 
center of gravity, was soon found to destroy the crossings, switches, 
curves, and badly aligned track. 

In 1891, the City and South London Railway placed gearless arma- 
tures directly on the locomotive axle, but the plan proved to be a failure. 
In 1895, Baltimore & Ohio gearless locomotives used quill-mounted 
armatures which were flexibly connected to the driver axle. The field 
frame was spring-suspended. The improvement was at once noted. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 207 




Fig. 47. — Baltimorii; and Ohio Railroad Quill-mounted Motor Armature on 1895 Locomovive. 



1 

r 


i '^ '^^^HH^^Jw^ iMiM 




1 


m 


l3'-l!'Mi 




m •>', 


S.-J 


^^^ J ^^ 



Fig. 48. — Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Motor Field and Armature on 1895 Locom( 



208 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



New York Central gearless locomotive followed, 10 years later. 
Motor armatures weighing 7640 pounds each are mounted directly on 
the axle, and the total dead weight, about 13,000 pounds per axle, is 
practically the same as on an ordinary steam locomotive; and, tho there 
are no unbalanced weights or forces, track maintenance expense is high. 
The weight of the motor frame itself rests on, and forms part of, the 
locomotive truck frame, and is spring-mounted. 



.«£^ 




# 




^^H^BHHjjJPJUIJJIp 


1 


I iPiiliiliii 




''*.■«'•• • ■ 





Fig. 49. — Pennsylvania Railroad Motor, 1910. 
Direct-current, 650-volt, 1250-h. p. on 157-ton locomotives. The frame is well braced, and the 

cranks are counter-balanced. 



Quill suspension of armature involves the mounting of the armature 
on a hollow motor axle which encircles the driving axle, the inner shaft 
being held concentric with the outer shaft by means of spiral springs. 
See technical description of Baltimore & Ohio, New Haven, and Valtel- 
lina locomotives, and New Haven motor cars which follow. 

Berlin-Zossen motor cars, in the high-speed tests of 1903, used four 
three-phase, 6-pole, 435-volt induction motors of 250-h. p. each. Siemens 
and Halske motors, for an 85-ton car, were mounted rigidly upon the 
driving axles; while A. E. G. motors, under a 99-ton car, were mounted 
on a hollow shaft, and spring-supported from the driving wheels. The 
latter plan greatly reduced the track destruction. 



[^ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 209 

Crank rod locomotive motor suspension involves motors with cranks on 
the armature shaft, which transmit the power to the drivers, or to a jack 
shaft and then to the drivers. The motor is mounted high on the loco- 
motive frames, and is spring-mounted. Mechanical connections of 
locomotive motors will be treated under ^^ Electric Locomotive Design," 
and under '^Technical Descriptions of Locomotives." 




Fig. 50. — Valtellina Locomotive Motor on Italian State Railway, 1906. 

Three-phase, .3000-volt, 15-cycle, 1200-h. p., 3-speed. Length of body 51 inches, length of shaft 

101 inches, diameter of body 74 inches, diameter of collector rings 12 inches. 

14. Trucks on which motors, cars, and locomotives are mounted 
could advantageously form the subject of a book. Technical descrip- 
tions of trucks for the principal electric locomotives will be given. 
Catalogs of trucks are valuable for data. See references on trucks. 

SPEED-TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTORS. 

Characteristic curves of a motor are those which show the relation 
of power to the speed and torque. Speed-torque curves are plotted by 
using the kilowatts, or amperes at a fixed voltage as a base, and the 
14 



210 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

corresponding speed and torque in the vertical scale. For comparative 
purposes, and to note the general form of all curves, the abscissae and 
ordinates should be plotted in per cent, of rated power, speed, and torque. 

One set of such curves is needed for direct-current motors, one for 
three-phase, one for single-phase series, and one for single-phase repulsion 
motors. Other curves are used to analyze the relation of power to speed 
and torque with variable voltage to the motor, or variable resistance in 
the rotor circuit; and also for different cycles, number of poles, windings, 
turns on fields and armature, magnetic circuits, air gaps, gear ratio, 
position of brushes, etc. Still other curves may be used to show the 
power, speed, and torque characteristics with two or more motors 
grouped in series-parallel or in concatenated relation; and with resistance 
or inductance in all or part of the field or rotor circuits. Other curves and 
combinations will be suggested for special cases. 

Torque of direct -current motors is proportional to the number of 
lines of force threading the armature; the number of turns or conductors 
on the armature; the current in the armature. It is independent of the 
motor voltage. The lever arm extends thru the crank, gear, and drivers. 

Torque of single -phase motors is proportional to the square of the 
impressed voltage, approximately; and the ratio of the reactance of the 
rotor winding at standstill to its resistance, approximately, and in 
practice this ratio varies from 6 to 25. 

Torque of three-phase motors varies directly as the square of the im- 
pressed motor voltage; for the flux density of the magnetizing field is rel- 
atively small, and the iron is much under-saturated, in order to reduce the 
iron loss and magnetic leakage. The starting torque is less than the 
maximum, and thus it is common to increase the voltage across the 
stator terminals in starting and to reduce it in running by a change at 
starting from delta to star connection, which changes the voltage in the 
ratio of 1.00 to 1.73; or to reduce it by means of a booster transformer, 
or by variable taps on the transformers. The torque is proportional to 
the magnetization, M; to the slip, S; to the resistance of the rotor, R; 
and inversely proportional to the total impedance of the motor. 

The maximum torque in running, and the current corresponding 
thereto, are not changed by the resistance in the motor armature. The 
resistance decreases the speed at which the maximum torque is reached. 
The pull-out torque of slow-speed three-phase railway motors is usually 
made from 250 per cent, to 325 per cent, times the continuous torque. 
It is usually extremely hard to obtain over 300 per cent, for railway 
motors, altho 400 per cent, is obtained for high-speed stationary motors. 

Steinmetz: "Alternating Current Phenomenon," 1st Ed., pp. 220-225. 

Dawson: "Electric Traction on Railways," p. 115. 

McAllister: "Alternating -current Motor," 3d Ed., Commutator Motors, p. 201. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 211 

Speed of direct-current motors varies almost directly with the voltage 
appHed to the armature. The speed curve or the counter electromotive 
force curve is the reciprocal of the magnetization curve. The limits on 
the ordinates of the speed curves are set first by no saturation of the 
magnetic circuit, in which case the product of the speed and the current 
is constant, or at one-half the normal current the speed would be twice 
the normal speed; and second, by a magnetic field well-saturated, in 
which case the ordinates, which vary inversely as the magnetization 
curve, are nearly parallel to the abscissa. 

Speed curves of single-phase alternating-current motors are a modifi- 
cation of the continuous-current motor curves. With an alternating- 
current motor it is necessary to keep the magnetic circuit well below the 
saturation point of the steel in order to reduce the magnetic losses. 

Speed curves of three-phase motors are practically parallel to the 
axis of abscissa, the variation from no load to full load being less than 
five per cent. 

Voltage affects the speed, but not the torque characteristics of direct- 
current motors; but in single-phase motors, voltage affects the speed and 
torque as just detailed; and voltage affects the motor capacity as noted 
under '^Rating of Motors." 

Voltage affects the torque, but not the speed, of three-phase induction 
motors, and it affects other characteristics as follows: 

Case "A," voltage 10 per cent, above normal: 

a. Magnetizing current increases directly as the square of the voltage. 

b. Iron loss increased 18 per cent., since the induction in the iron, which varies 
with the voltage, is 10 per cent, greater. 

c. Copper loss in primary is smaller because the current required per h. p. is 
smaller; copper loss in secondary is only 86 per cent, because of the smaller slip, which 
for the same h. p. and apparent efficiency varies inversely as the square of the voltage. 

d. Efficiency increases slightly, because of smaller losses. 

e. Power factor is reduced 2 per cent. 

f. Torque in starting and also the pull-out or maximum torque are 21 per cent, 
greater, on account of the reduced leakage. 

Case " B," voltage 10 per cent, below normal: 

a. Iron loss is reduced 15 per cent, by the lower flux density. 

b. Copper loss in primary is 22 per cent, larger, on account of increased current; 
copper loss in secondary is 20 per cent, greater, on account of larger sHp. 

c. Power factor is increased .7 per cent, by the smaller magnetizing current. 

d. Starting torque is about the same, but the pull-out torque is decreased 17 per 
cent by the larger leakage. 

Case " C, " voltage 27 per cent, below normal : 

a. Starting torque and pull-out torque are about 50 per cent, of normal. 

b. Capacity is reduced one-third, because of the excessive temperature rise from 
the larger copper losses. 



212 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Gearing ratio and driver diameter affect the torque of the motors. 
They of course affect the speed of the car or locomotive and the work 
done. See references on Gearing, page 22 L 

CHOICE OF CYCLES. 

Engineers favor both 25 and 15 cycles for heavy railway services. 
The 25-cycle system is in general use in America and in England. 
See ''Electric Systems." 

Comparison of 15-cycle with 25-cycle single-phase motors shows 
there is an increase of from 25 to 40 per cent, in the output of a. given 
motor when a proper increase is made in exciting ampere turns. The 
gain for large railroad motors is about 30 per cent. It is in the feature 
of increased induction that the principal gain with lower frequency 
is found; and the increased induction is obtained with less short-circuiting 
of armature coils and also with less exciting voltage in proportion to the 
counter electromotive force, and consequently with higher power-factor. 

The limitation in the 25-cycle motor is caused largely by the increase 
in iron necessary to keep down the inductive element and consequently 
to secure a reasonable power-factor. Higher efficiency, better commuta- 
tion, and less weight are obtained in 15-cycle, single-phase motors. 

The power-factor of series-compensated, 25-cycle motors of 75 to 
250 h.p. is 85 to 90 per cent.; of 15-cycle 75- to 500-h.p. motors is 88 to 93. 

A 500-h,p., 15-cycle motor, designed for equally good performance 
on 25-cycle, produces 360 h.p. at best rating. 

''A comparison of 4-motor Westinghouse equipments made up of 
75-h. p. motors at 25 cycles, and the same motors adapted for 15 cycles, 
giving 95-h.p., showed, in the latter case the electrical apparatus per car 
to be 5 per cent, heavier, the car weight to be 1.6 per cent, heavier, and 
the h.p. gain to be 26 per cent." Lamme. 

Even with increased transformer weight, the 15-cycle equipment, in- 
cluding trucks and frames, is usually lighter. 

New York, New Haven & Hartford engineers considered both 15 and 25 cycles 
for their 1906 passenger locomotive designs. The motors would have been some- 
what lighter and the transformers would have been somewhat heavier on 15 cycles. 
It was found that the 15-cycle locomotive had the advantage of 5.2 per cent, in weight 
and about 3 per cent, in cost, and was slightly better as to its efficiency and power 
factor. Based on 1911 conditions and experience in manufacture and design, it is 
fair to state that 15 cycles would now make a difference of 10 per cent, in weight and 
8 per cent, in cost. If the locomotive weight was 30 per cent, of the train weight, it 
would mean a saving of 3 per cent, in the total weight of the train, but in passenger 
trains there would be a saving of less than 1 per cent. The 25-cycle system was 
chosen because standard apparatus had been adapted for this frequency (so far as 
generators and induction motors were concerned), and because 15-cycle trans- 
formers might have cost 40 per cent, more than 25-cycle transformers. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 213 

Results with 25, 30, and 60 cycles on the same three-phase motors: 

Case "A," frequency increased from 25 to 30 cycles. 

Starting and pull-out torque reduced 17 per cent. 

Efficiency and power-factor improved. 

Friction and windage about 45 per cent, higher. 

Iron loss decreased 13 per cent. 

Copper loss and slip the same. 

Leakage is greater. 

Case " B," frequency increased from 25 to 60 cycles: 
Pull-out torque reduced in the ratio of 3.6 to 1.5. 
Starting torque reduced in the ratio of 2.5 to 0.5. 
Efficiency slightly decreased. 
Iron loss decreased 50 per cent. 
Copper loss slightly increased. 

Case "C," frequency reduced from 60 to 25 cycles, at rated voltage: 

Operation is impossible on account of the high induction required to produce the 
necessary torque for the same output and 42 per cent, normal speed. At 2.4 times 
the normal density of the iron, the iron loss is doubled and the magnetizing current 
will be nearly as great as the energy component. The resulting current makes the 
copper loss prohibitive. 

The torque is proportional to the product of the secondary flux and the second- 
ary current. At 120 per cent, flux, the secondary current should be unchanged 
The speed varies with the number of cycles. 

Abstracted from article by Werner, Electric Journal, July, 1906. 

Disadvantages of 25 cycles compared with 15 cycles: 

Cycle change from 60 cycles is decidedly less convenient in design. 
The ratio of cycle transformation is odd,»viz., 12 to 5 in place of 4 to 1. 

Field saturation in the motor is 30 per cent, lower and therefore the 
counter-electromotive force of the armature, the power factor, the output, 
and the torque are decreased in proportion. 

Air gaps must be smaller to raise the field saturation and power factor. 

Weight runs up rapidly on larger motors (250 h. p. or over) and is 33 
per cent, heavier than that of direct-current motors; while it is only 15 
per cent, heavier with 15 cycles. 

Capacity, power factor, commutation at time of starting and on 
overloads, are poorer at 25 cycles. 

Cost for given results is higher with 25 cycles. 

Speed of large steam turbines must be higher. 

• 

Disadvantages of 15 cycles compared with 25 cycles: 

Field ampere turns for a given induction are increased. 

Transformers are more expensive and heavier but this is offset partly 
by higher power factor and efficiency. 

Vibration of 15-cycle railway motors requires special at leads and 
connections, and often requires riveting in place of soldering; and it 
causes crystalization of bars and wires. 



214 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILAVAY TRAINS 

Other induction motors on transmission lines are more expensive. 
These include shop motors, cycle changers, transformers, converters, etc. 

The low cycles are not so well adapted for electric lighting. 

Torque pulsation decreases the output, and this must be dampened 
by the inertia of springs. 

The use of 15 cycles is advantageous for single-phase series motors. 
The fewer reversals of magnetic flux and induced e. m. f. under the 
brushes decrease the sparking, heating, and energy loss at the commu- 
tator. A motor may be designed, however, which is just as efficient at 
25 cycles as at a lower frequency, the weight and cost being the handicap. 

Drawbar pull of locomotive motors on 12.5 and 25 cycles is noted: 

Locomotive No. 9 on the Westinghouse Interworks Railway was tested with 
25 cars back of the dynamometer car. The locomotive was started and after the 
controller was at full position the brakes were applied to the cars only. Both acceler- 
ation and deceleration of the train were zero when the tests were recorded. The test 
at 12.5 cycles was with a line voltage of 3500 and a motor voltage of 160 volts, am- 
peres, 3000, and .60 power-factor. A drawbar pull of 30,000 pounds was obtained 
before slipping began. The test at 25 cycles was with a Une voltage of 6000, and a 
motor voltage of about 160, amperes 3100, and .57 power-factor. A drawbar pull of 
30,000 pounds was obtained. The indications are roughly that the point of slipping 
for 12.5 cycles is practically the same as that for 25 cycles. Test by L, M. Aspinwall. 

6o-cycle locomotives or motor cars are not used on any railroad. 
There have been several 50- and 45-cycle experimental equipments 
and street railways; and 40 cycles are used in the Burgdorf-Thun three- 
phase interurban. Engineering reasons which prevent the commercial 
use of higher cycle motors by railroads are listed below: 

Losses in copper transmission lines are greater. 

Losses in track rail circuits are greater. 

Regulation of inductive and control circuits is poorer. 

Single-phase motors cannot use the wide range of cycles which is possible with 
three-phase motors. 

Higher cycles compel greatly decreased magnetic induction in the iron of motors 
by design, and therefore: 

Output and torque are proportionately increased. 

Higher speeds are required to follow the higher cycles. 

Decidedly larger frames are required for motors. 

Ratio of output to dimensions is greatly increased. 

Drawbar pull per ton is lower with higher cycles. 

Air gaps are smaller; or the power factor is lower. 

Price per h. p. is higher with 60 cycles. 

(The last four reasons govern, in railroad train service.) 

CONTROL OF MOTORS. 

Control of trains will be considered under ^'Motor-Car Trains." 
Control of motors involves the starting of the motors, the acceleration 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 215 

to full speed, definite time limits, uniformity of motion, and economy. 
The problem varies with the class of service. The time during which 
power is applied is involved in frequent-stop railway service. The rate 
of acceleration desired depends upon the service and the length of the run. 
L^niformity of motion is desirable in rapid transit, but it is necessary 
when freight trains are started, i. e., the control resistances or voltage 
variations must be so proportioned that the power is not applied with 
jerks. Economy is always involved. Magnetization or speed curves of 
the motor and the speed-torque characteristics are also involved. 

Controllers involve various kinds of apparatus, automatic and hand, 
safety devices, interlocks, etc., all of which cannot be considered. 

Designs of motors can be varied to make a permanent change in the 
speed by a change in air gap, windings, gear ratio, driver diameter, etc. 

Control of direct -current motors in practice is carried out by means of 
voltage variations, brought about in three ways: 

a. Resistance is connected in series with motors or with groups of 
motors. This resistance is external and is made of cast-iron grids. 
Liquid resistance, introduced by Field in 1889, is used by Italian State 
Railways. 

b. Circuit control is also involved. Resistances and motors may be 
grouped and cut in and cut out by opening and rearranging circuits, by 
shunting, or by bridging. The latter scheme prevents sudden rise in 
voltage and the jerk caused by opening and closing circuits. 

c. Motor grouping, in Avhich two or more motors are electrically 
connected in series, then in series and parallel, and later in parallel 
arrangement, by which each motor receives 25, 50, or 100 per cent, 
respectively of the line voltage. 

Series -parallel motor control became common in 1891. The first 
British patents were issued to Hunter, June 7, 1882. The U. S. patents 
issued to Hunter, June 26, 1888, embraced: 

" The combination of an electrically propelled vehicle having two electric motors, 
a source of electric supply, and switches for coupling up the motors in series or 
multiple with the source of supply to vary the speed or power of the motors." 

'' Series-parallel motor control was in practical use on the Lehigh Valley Avenue 
Line in Philadelphia in May, 1890." Hopkinson. 

Thomson-Houston Electric Company devised a series-parallel control scheme 
about 1892 with contractors operated mechanically by means of long shafts. So 
imperfect were the mechanical means of throwing the contractors out and in that it 
was soon abandoned by the several roads. 

A series-parallel controller was perfected in 1893 by Wm. Cooper, F. R. Springer, 
and the author of this book. It was effective and simple, and one in which all parts, 
including the rheostat, were enclosed in one box. A semicircular Thomson-Houston 
rheostat was used, with an 8-inch break of Portland cement insulation across the 
middle. Magnetic blowouts were also used. As the contact shoe passed across the 
cement break, the motors were changed from series to parallel by means of ordinary 



216 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

switch blades. This controller was used from 1893 to 1899, on all Minneapolis and 
St. Paul cars, and was discarded because of its bulky and out-of-date appearance. 

The efficiency of series-parallel control, during the time the cars are 
accelerating, is about 66 per cent., while the efficiency of ordinary rheo- 
static control is about 50 per cent. Additional savings arise from the 
higher motor and line efficiency, and the motor maintenance is also 
radically reduced. 

The accompanying equations show the efficiency of control in direct- 
current practice. 

Plain Resistance. Series-parallel. Series, Series-parallel, Parallel. 
IR IR IR 

I R is the drop of voltage in the motor and E is the line voltage. 

d. Field control is obtained in two ways: 

By connecting field coils in series and in multiple combinations. This 
is the commutating field scheme used in the 1883 Edison locomotive and 
1888 Sprague motors. Parshall, A. I. E. E., April, 1892. 

By shunting part of the field current to reduce the field strength. 
Large motors on the New Haven and Pennsylvania Railroad locomotives 
use field control, i. e., normal field and full field. Field control is now 
utilized with interpole railway motors to increase the efficiency by 
decreasing rheostatic losses for service requiring frequent acceleration in 
congested districts and yet to obtain high speeds for long runs. With 
field control, direct-current locomotive motors now have 8 efficient run- 
ning notches instead of the 3. 

Control of three-phase motors is effected in the following ways: 

Resistance can be inserted in the rotor circuit to vary the torque; 
but, like placing resistance in the armature circuit of a shunt motor, this 
is a wasteful plan. The efficiency is lower than when resistance is 
inserted in direct-current series motor circuits. The starting torque of 
the three-phase motor is low, and the starting current is excessive unless 
such resistance is so used. Motors may be run above the synchronous 
speed, on the down grade, by inserting resistance in the motor, but this 
also is wasteful. With few stops, the average efficiency for the run may 
not be materially reduced by inefficient acceleration. 

Simplon Tunnel locomotive motors now use squirrel-cage armature, with a 
resistance about 5 times as high as for ordinary armatures of the same size and type, 
and, while the motor efficiency is lower at all times, the control is simplified and is 
somewhat automatic. 

An efficient induction motor is substantially a synchronous machine and operates 
normally with a small slip. If the driving wheels are of unequal size, due to unequal 
wear, or if two locomotives with wheels of different sizes are coupled together in a 
train, there will be an unequal distribution of the load. If one driver is 5 per cent. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 217 

smaller than another, the motor connected to the larger driver may be operating at 
double load, while the motor connected to the smaller driver may be doing no work 
or may even be operating as a generator or as a brake. 

Mr. A. H. Armstrong's patent of June 28, 1905, provides means for independently 
adjusting the torque of several motors, so that the load may be equally distributed 
at all times, by inserting independent adjustable resistances in series with the secon- 
dary ^\dndings of each motor. 

Giovi locomotives have an arrangement of this nature, but the regulation of the 
resistance (see description on page 345) is automatic. In either case the resistance 
loss represents a direct and unavoidable waste. 

2. Pole change is used to vary the speed of three-phase motors. 

Example: N-S-N-S-N-S-N-S for 8 poles. 
N N-S S-N N-S S for 4 poles. 

This involves an increase in the complication at windings, particularly 
so for motor-car trains. When the power is thrown off and the number of 
poles, and the transformer voltage, are changed by the controller^ jerky 
tractive efforts result, and this may break a train in two. Simplon 
Tunnel and Giovi locomotives are arranged for two speeds. Some of 
the Valtellina and latest Simplon locomotives have three and four speeds. 
See Hellmund: Multi-speed, Squirrel-cage Induction Motors, E. W., Oct. 13, 1910. 

Cascade control requires the use of two motors having the same or a different num- 
berof poles, speeds, and electric windings. The two motors may be on one axle or on dif- 
ferent axles. The primary of the first motor is connected to the line, and the secondary 
or rotor is connected to the primary of the second motor, thru collector rings, while 
the secondary of the second motor is closed thru adjustable resistances. The syn- 
chronous speed of the first motor is the frequency of the supply divided by the number 
of pairs of poles. Thus, if the cycles are 25 per second and the number of pairs of 
poles is 2, the synchronous speed of the first motor is 750 r. p. m. The frequency of 
the supply from the rotor of the first motor to the stator of the second motor may be 
25 or any other number of cycles. Assuming that it is the same, then, since the 
r. p. s. of the first motor are 12.5 and the number of pairs of poles of the second motor 
is 2, the synchronous speed of the second motor is 6.125 r. p. s., or 375 r. p. m., while 
running in cascade; and if the motors are on the same shaft or coupled, the speed of 
both motors will be 375 r. p. m. When the motors are operating in cascade at 
above half-speed on the down grades, energy is regenerated. 

In practice, the auxiliary motor is seldom connected to the line; its function is to 
use the energy produced by the first motor, and therefore its capacity is 60 to 90 per 
cent, of the main motor because of the losses thru the main motor, and because the 
auxiliary motor is or may be out of action the greater part of the time during which 
the main motor is working. Generally one motor is used alone and then the other. 
The capacity of the locomotive is the capacity of the larger motor. 

For suburban service three motors would be required to provide economical 
running speeds and a high maximum velocity to obtain a high rate of acceleration. 

Cascade control is often used with two motors which have a different number of 
poles. The motors must be geared to the same sized drivers. If the motors are to 
be used separately, they may be unequally geared; but this plan introduces complica- 
tions and is of Httle practical value. 

Cascade control is as efficient as the direct-current series-parallel control, in watt- 



218 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

liours per ton-mile, or in maximum kilowatts per ton during acceleration. The 
power-factor is low, 50 to 60 per cent, with half-speed cascade operation. The weight 
of the three-phase motor equipment with the cascade-single or cascade-parallel plan 
is 45 to 60 per cent, heavier than direct-current series-parallel equipment. 

General rule for choice of concatenation or pole change: Where the 
principal speed is the high speed, use concatenation for half speed; 
where the principal speed is the low speed, use the pole-changing plan 
for double speed. 

4, Voltage control consists of employing varying potentials on the 
primary or the stator of the motors. (Giovi Locomotive.) 

A high voltage is required in starting to increase the drawbar pull, 
after which, in running, the voltage can advantageously be reduced. 
The drawbar pull varies inversely as the square of the motor voltage. 
This control requires that the transformer be carried with the train. 

Another control plan is to wind the primary for delta connection 
for accelerating, and to reconnect it in star for running; this reduces the 
voltage applied, in the ratio of 1.73 to 1.00. Brown, Boveri Company's 
Simplon locomotive control embodies a change from an 8-poIe, delta-star 
connection to a 16-pole star connection, and incidentally a change in the 
voltage per pole in the ratio of 1/2 to 1/1.73, or as 100 to 106. 

Great Northern locomotives are controlled by first starting with a 
Mallet steam locomotive; by varying resistance in the rotor; by varying 
the voltage to the stator; and by using first two motors and then four. 

Single -phase alternating-current motor control is obtained by con- 
necting the motor to different taps on a transformer, and thus varying 
the voltage across the motor. The transformer may have its primary 
winding connected to the trolley and to the earth, and at the earthed end 
various taps from the primary may be brought out to give suitable volt- 
ages; or taps from the coils of an ordinary secondary winding are con- 
nected to the motor. The circuit connections are made by means of 
contactors energized by a master controller, and the motor runs at the 
speed corresponding to the connection from the transformer, but without 
rheostatic loss. The Deri induction motors on European locomotives 
are controlled by shifting the brushes, from the cab, by means of shafts 
and levers. 

Efficiency of control schemes, for starting trains, averages about 66 
per cent, for series-parallel control; about 65 per cent, for concatenated 
three-phase control; and about 75 per cent, for potential control. 

Leonard's control scheme embodies a single-phase generating and 
transmitting system, conversion of single-phase current to direct current 
by a motor-generator on the locomotive, and means for varying the speed 
by varying the voltage applied to the train motors, from zero to maximum 
value, without wasteful rheostatic losses. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 219 

LITERATURE. 

Text-books on Electric Railway Motors. 

Steinmetz: "Elements of Electrical Engineering." McGraw, 1909. 

Steinmetz: ''Alternating-current Phenomena," McGraw, 1908. 

McAllister: ''Alternating-current Motors," McGraw, 1909. 

Punga: "Single-phase Commutator Motors," Whittaker, 1906. 

Goldschmidt: "Alternating-current Commutator Motors," Van Nostrand, 1909 

Crocker and Arendt: ."Electric Motors," Van Nostrand, 1909. 

Wilson and Lydall: "Electrical Traction," Arnold, 1907. 

References on History. 

See several articles in S. R. J., Oct. 4, 1904. 

Dodd: Evolution of Electric Railway Motor, S. R. J., Dec. 26, 1903. Development 
of Railway Motor Design, S. R. J., Nov. 21, 1903; Dec. 26, 1903; Oct. 8, 1904. 
Hutchinson: Development of Railway Motors, Cassiers, Aug., 1899. 

References on Direct-current Motors for Railway Trains. 

Hanchett: "Railway Motors," St. Ry. Pub. Co., N. Y., 1900. 

Lundie: The Electric Railway Motor, S. R. J., Oct. 13, 1900. 

Parshall: Sprague Motor, S. R. J., Aug. 1899; A. I. E. E., May, 1890; Apr., 1892. 

Shepardson: Electric Railway Motor Tests of 1892, A. I. E. E., June, 1892. 

Atkinson: Theory of. The Electrician, March 25, 1898; Inst, of C. E., Feb. 22, 1898. 

Anderson: Economy, Equipment, and Schedules, S. E. J., Oct, 20, 1£06. 

Hutchinson: Rise in Temperature and Ry. Motor Capacity, A. I. E. E., Jan., 1902. 

Potter and Gotshall: Discussion, A. I. E. E., Oct., 1903. 

Sprague: Motor Characteristics, A. I. E. E., May, 1907, p. 700. 

Potter: Selection for Railway Service, A. I. E. E., Jan., 1902. 

Renshaw: Operation in Ry. Service, A. I. E., E. June, 1903; S. R. J., June 29, 1907. 

AVestinghouse Motors: 38 and 101, Elec. Journal, Jan., 1906. 

Condict: Interpole Railway Motors, S. R. J., April 21, May 26, 1906. 

Anderson: Commutating Pole Motors, A. I. E. E., June, 1907. 

Bedell: Commutating Pole Motors, A. I. E. E., May, 1906. 

Davis: Interpole Railway Motors, Elec. Journal, Oct., 1910. 

Hippie; Auxiliary Pole Motors, Elec. Journal, May, 1906. 

References on Three-phase Motors. 

Waterman: Three-phase Motors on ValteUina Ry., A. I. E. E., June, 1905. 

Danielson: Combinations of Polyphase Motors, A. I. E. E., May, 1902. 

De Muralt: A. I. E. E., Jan., 1907; E. R. J., Nov. 28, 1908. 

Goldschmidt: Distribution of Conductor Windings in Three-phase Motors, Effect on 

Torque, Elek. Zeitschrift, Apr. 18, 1901. 
Lamme: Three-phase Motors and Systems, S. R. J., March 24, 1906, p. 451. 
Specht: Motors for Multispeed Service with Cascade Operation, A. I. E. E., July, 1908. 
Helbnund: Multispeed Induction Motors, E. W., Oct. 13, 1910. 

References on Single -phase Motors in General. 

Lamme: Single-phase Motor, A. I. E. E., Sept., 1902, S. R. J., March 24, 1906; 
E. W., Dec. 26, 1903, p. 1043; Single-phase Fields, Electric Journal, Sept., 1906. 



220 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Hanchett: Principles of the Repulsion Motor, S. R. J., May 28, 1904. 

Steinmetz : Single-phase Commutator Motors, International Elec. Congress, St. Louis, 

Sept., 1904; A. I. E. E., Jan. and Sept., 1904. 
Armstrong: Alternating-current Single-phase Motors, S. R. J., Dec. 24, 1904, p. 1111. 
Eichberg: Single-phase Motors, International Electric Congress, St. Louis, 1904. 
Dennington: Commutation of Compensated Repulsion Motors, E. W., Dec. 12, 1908. 
McLaren: Advantages of Single-phase Motors, Electric Journal, August, 1907. 
Dawson: Single-phase Motors, London Electrician, May, June, and July, 1908. 
Fynn: Factors Affecting Theoretical Design of Single-phase Induction Motors, E. W., 

Dec. 9, 1909, p. 1416. 
Kapp : Review of Single-phase Motors, British Institute of Elec. Engineers, Nov., 1909. 

References on Single-phase Motors. General Electric. 

General Electric: Series Compensated Single-phase Motors, S. R. J., Aug. 27 and 

Sept. 3, 1904, pp. 280 and 309. 
Milch: Repulsion Motor, A. I. E. E., May, 1906. 

Shchter: Characteristics of Repulsion Motors, A. I. E. E., Jan., 1904. 
Alexanderson : Series-repulsion, A. I. E. E., Jan. 10, 1908; S. R. J., Jan. 18, 1908, 

p. 82; E. W., Jan. 18, 1908, pp. 127, 138, 144; Oot. 28, 1909, p. 1036. 
Alexanderson: Induction Machines for Heavy Single-phase Motor Service, A. I. E. E., 

June, 1911. 
Morecroft: Single-phase Induction Motors, G. E. Review, May, 1910. 
See references on "Electric Systems." 

References on Single -phase Motors — Westinghouse. 

Lamme: New Haven Locomotive Motors, A. I. E. E., Jan., 1908, p. 21; S. R. J., Aug. 

24, 1907, April 14, 1906. 
Lamme: Single-phase Motors, A.I. E. E., Feb., 1908; Jan. 29, Sept. 14, 1904, S. R. J., 

Jan. 6, 1906, p. 22; E. W., Feb., 1904, p. 316 and 479. 
Patents: Lamme, S. R. J., Feb. 13, 1904, p. 261; Mar. 5, 1904, p. 479. 
Newbury: Operation of A. C. Motors, Elec. Journal, Feb., 1904; March, 1905, Sept., 

1906, Feb., 1906. 
Renshaw: Power Factor at Starting of A. C. Series Motors, Elec. Journal, April, 1904. 
Bright: Test on Single-phase Motor Equipment, Elec. Journal, Nov. and Dec, 1905. 

References on Single -phase Motors — European. 

Latour: Motors, S. R. J., Feb. 10, 1906, p. 239. 

Finzi: Motors, S. R. J., Aug. 11, 1906, p. 230. 

Siemens: Motors, S. R. J., Feb. 1, 1908. 

Winter-Eichberg ; A. E. G., Characteristic Curves and Diagrams, S. R. J., Oct. 17, 1903. 

Deri: Kapp to Inst. E. E., Nov., 1909; E. W., July 8, 1911, p. 104. 

References on Comparisons of Railway Motors. 

Dawson: "Electric Traction on Railways." 
Hobart: "Electric Trains." 

References on Rating of Railway Motors. 

Hutchinson: Motor Capacity of Railway Motors, A. I. E. E., Jan., 1902. 
Storer: Elec. Journal, July and Sept., 1908, S. R. J., Jan. 5, 1901. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 221 

Spout: La Liiminere Elec, Sept. 5, 1908. 

Ashe: Elec. Review, Oct. 14, 1906. 

Armstrong: Study of Heating of Motors, A. I. E. E., June, 1902. 

References on Motor Ventilation. 

Dawson: Serial in London Electrician, year 1907. 

Parshall and Hob art: ''Electric Railway Engineering," Chapter IV. 

Hobart: "Heavy Electrical Engineering," Chapter IV. 

Sprague: Comparison of Motors on a Thermal Basis, A. I. E. E., May 21, 1907, p. 702. 

References on Trucks and Suspension of Railway Motors, 

Car Builders' Dictionary, Waite: Ry. Age Gazette, 3rd Ed., 1908. 

Uebelacker: Trucks for Interurban Service, S. R. J,, Oct. 4, 1902. 

Heckler: Foundation Brake-gear Design for Electric Cars, S. R. J., Nov. 30, 1907. 

Dodds: On Weight Distribution and Suspension, A. I. E. E., June, 1905. 

Cough: Distribution of Motors, S. R. J., Oct. 6, 1906. 

Taylor: Brake Rigging, S. R. J., Feb. 1, 1908. 

Heron: Relation of Car Length, Weight, Truck Centers, S. R. J., Feb. 8, 1908. 

Vauclain: Electric Motor and Trailer Trucks, S. R. J., Apr. 4, 1908. 

Eaton: Motor Mounting, etc., Electric Journal, Oct., Nov., Dec, 1910. 

See description of Flexible Coupling between Motor Sleeve and Driver Axle, on 

Fayet-Chamonix Motor-cars, S. R. J., Feb. 7, 1903, p. 206. 

See "Motor-car Trains" for Cars and Trucks; see "Descriptions of Locomotives." 

References on Mechanical Gearing. 

Litchfield: Gearing, A. S. M. E., Dec, 1908; E. R. J., Dec 12, 1908. 

Huffman: Gearing, S. R. J., Oct. 29, 1904. 

Hobart: "Gear Ratio," "Electric Railway Engineering," p. 82. 

Storer: Gear Ratios, Elec. Journal, Sept., 1908. 

WilHams: Ry. Motors, Gears, and Pinions, E. R. J., July 2, 1910. 

Eaton: Manufacture of Gears, G. E. Rev^iew, June, 1911. 

References on Electrical Construction and Windings. 

Data on Motors, Commutators, Rheostats, S. R. J., Dec. 14, 1907, p. 1138. 
Diagrams of A. E. G. Windings and Connections, E. W., July 21, 1910, p. 146. 
Windings of Armatures, E. T. W., Feb. 2.0, 1909. 
Windings of Fields. Electric Journal, Sept., 1904. 
Valatins' Data on Railway Motors, E. W., Nov. 18, 1905. 
Webster: Railway Motor Construction, Elec. Journal, Feb., 1906. 
Jordon: Winding of Direct-current Armatures, Elec. Journal, Jan., 1906. 
Dodd: Mechanical Aids to Commutation, Elec. Journal, May, 1906. 
Robertson: Winding a Ry. Motor Armature, Elec Journal, June, 1904. 
Wayne: Railway Motor Windings, Elec. Journal, July, 1904. 
Davis: Railway Motor Construction, Elec Journal, Oct., 1910. 

References on Choice of Cycles. 

Scott, C. F.: Electric Journal, March, 1907. 
Stillwell: A. I. E. E., Jan., 1907. 



222 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Elec. Zeit: Data on, July 15, 1909. 

Armstrong: A. I. E. E., June, 1907. 

Storer: A. I. E. E., June, 1907; S. R. J., June 21, 1907. 

Lamme: A. I. E. E., Jan. 10, 1908, p. 27; Feb., 1908, p. 148, June, 1908. 

Slichter: Cost of Equipment, A. I. E. E., Jan., 1907, p. 131. 

References on Speed-torque Characteristics. 

Parshall and Hob art: "Electric Railway Engineering," Chapter IV. 

Steinmetz: '^ Elements of Electrical Engineering," 3rd Ed., p. 287. 

Steinmetz: Speed-torque Characteristics of A. C. and D. C. Motors in Railway Work, 

A. I. E. E., Sept. 26, 1902, p. 31; Sept. 14, 1904, p. 624; Repulsion Motor 

Curves, A. I. E. E., Jan. 29, 1904. 
Alexanderson : on G. E. Series Repulsion Motor of 1908, A. I. E. E., Jan. 10, 1908, 

pp. 1-42. 
Slichter: Characteristics of Repulsion Motors, A. I. E. E., Jan., 1904. 
Sprague: Motor Characteristics, A. I. E. E., May, 1907, p. 702. 
Dalziel: Speed-torque Curves: Institution of Electrical Engineers, April, 1910. 
Reed: Speed-torque Curves of Polyphase Motors, E. R. J., Nov., 1906. 
Danielson: Three-phase Motor Characteristic and Control, A. I. E. E., May, 1902. 
Winter-Eichberg: A. E. G., Characteristic Curves, S. R. J., Oct. 17, 1903. 

References on Control of Railway Motors. 

Cooper: Motor Control, E. R. J., Oct. 15, 1908, p. 1109; Elec. Journal, Feb., 1906. 
Jackson: Single-phase Control; Elec. Journal, Sept. and Dec, 1905, p. 525 and 762. 
Dodd: Proper Handhng of Controllers, S. R. J., Aug., 1897. 
Valatin: Three-phase Motor Control, S. R. J., Apr. 6, 1907, p. 576. 
Hammer: Valtellina Motor Control, S. R. J., March 16, 1901, p. 345. 
Hellmund: Multi-speed Squirrel-cage Induction Motors, E. W., Oct. 13, 1910. 
Crocker and Arendt: "Electric Motors, Direct-current Series Motors," part II. 
Parshall and Hobart: "Electric Railway Engineering," p. 75. 

References on Tests of Railway Motors. 

Shepardson: Electric Railway Motor Tests, A. I. E. E., June, 1892. 
Stillwell: Tests of Interboro. N. Y., Subway Motors, S. R. J., Mar. 21, 1903. 
Bright: Tests on Single-phase Motors, Elec. Journal, Nov. and Dec, 1905. 
Fay, Beach, Cooper: Tests of Railway Motors, Elec. Journal, Sept., Dec, 1906. 
Edwards: Tests of Locomotive Motors, E. R. J. June 10, 1911, p. 1011. 

References on Specifications for Railway Motors. 

Specifications for Motors; A. S. &I. Ry. Assoc, 1908, E. R. J., Sept. 22, 1906; Oct. 14, 

1908, p. 1013. 
Specifications for Brooklyn Rapid Transit Motors, E. R. J., June 12, 1909, p. 1073. 
Specifications and standardization, S. R. J., Sept. 22, 1906. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 223 



This page is reserved for additional references and notes on Electric 
Railway Motors for Train Service. 



CHAPTER VI. 
MOTOR-CAR TRAINS. 

Outline. 

Definition. 
Development. 
Motor-car Train Service. 
Characteristics : 

Flexibility, acceleration rates, high schedule speed, distribution of weight and 
strains, distribution of motive power, reliability of service, similarity of equip- 
ment, independence, safety, capacity. 

Economy of Operation : 

Maintenance of ways, maintenance of equipment, wages, fuel, and power, 
maintenance per car-mile, total cost per car-mile. 

Cost of Motor-car Equipments. 

Motor-car Versus Locomotive -hauled Trains. 

Motor Cars on Trains Versus Single Motor Cars. 

Arrangement of Motor Cars and Coaches in Trains. , | 

Control of Multiple -unit Trains and Locomotives. | ,| 

Technical Descriptions of Motor Cars : 

New York Central & Hudson River; Long Island-Pennsylvania; New York, ' 
New Haven & Hartford; Chicago, Lake Shore & South Bend; ValtelHna 
Railway of Italy. 

Installations on Railways. Tables : 

Direct-current, three-phase, single-phasr? 

Literature. 



224 



CHAPTER VI. 

MOTOR-CAR TRAINS. 

DEFINITION. 

A motor-car train is defined as a group of mechanically connected 
cars equipped with and propelled by electric motors under some or all 
of the cars of the train. It is generally controlled by an operator, 
at the head of the train, on the multiple-unit plan of secondary control. 

THE DEVELOPMENT. 

The development shows that, since 1885, single-truck motor cars 
frequently have hauled light trailers for heavy morning and evening 
street-car service. Interurban and suburban traffic required a double- 
truck car. At first there was one 50-h. p. motor on each truck; but 
the weight on the drivers was not sufficient, and the wheels slipped, 
causing a waste of power and also of time. Four-motor equipments 
were then adopted, about 1898-1900. The limit in the seating capacity 
of a suburban car was soon reached, because, when the car was over 




Fig. 51.— Metropolitan Elevated Railway, Chicago, Motor-car Train. 

55 feet long it could not be turned on a short radius curve at a street 
intersection. Two-car trains, a motor and a coach, or two motor cars, 
operated by ofie motorman and one conductor for heavy traffic was an 
economic development which soon followed; but city councils generally 
prohibited the use of an interurban 2-car train on city streets; and trains 
15 225 



226 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

of 2, 3, and 4 cars were compelled to use a private right-of-way, within 
the city limits. 

Locomotive cars, loaded with passengers, hauled trains at Chicago 
for the Columbian Exposition, in 1893, and for the Metropolitan West 
Side Elevated Railroad in 1895. The plan was not satisfactory because 
the locomotives did not have the tractive effort which is required for 
rapid acceleration. The dead weight was then increased, and the tractive 
effort and motor capacity were made sufficient for a long train, but 
were too great for shorter trains. The plan was neither flexible nor 



Fig. 52. — Boston Elevated Railway Motor-car Train. 
Car body length, 60 feet. Seating capacity, 64 pas?engers. Weight, 54 tons. 

economical. The electric locomotive cars for train haulage gave way 
to the motor-car train when^ about 1898, a practical control scheme 
was perfected. 

Economy in wages and power, high-schedule speed, and safety 
soon required that cars in trains be hauled on a private right-of-way. 
Clean rails on the right-of-way, and the greatly reduced air resistance 
per ton when cars ran in trains, decreased the power required, and there 
was ample tractive effort and speed with only two motors per car. 
Simplicity and maintenance caused the location of the two motors on 
one truck. Steam railroads, when they first adopted electric power for 
suburban train service, simply equipped each passenger coach with 
two electric motors on one new truck. 

MOTOR-CAR TRAIN SERVICE. 

Electric locomotives are used for freight haulage, switching service, 
thru passenger service, and for passenger terminals. 

Motor-car passenger trains are in general use for all elevated rail- 
ways; underground and tube railways; and for heavy suburban trains on 
a private right-of-way. 



MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 



227 






Fig. 53. — New York Central & Hudson River Railroad Motor-car and Truck. 

Truck weight 8 tons. Wheel base 7 feet. Wheels 36 inches. Swinging bolster supported by double 

elliptic springs. Truck frame supported from semi-elliptic springs over the journal boxes by 

spring hangers. 



228 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



Motor-cars in local freight trains are a recent and a very important 
commercial development. For example: 

North-Eastern Railway of England uses multiple-unit cars for 
freight service. Each car is 55 feet long, has four 125-h.p. motors, and 
handles luggage, parcels, and fish. These cars are coupled into either 
an electric- or steam-driven train. 

Paris-Orleans Railway uses heavy motor cars, of the baggage-car 
type, loaded with supplies and high-grade freight, to haul trains. 




Fig. 54. — Hudson and Manhatten Railroad Motor Car. 
Length 48 feet; seats 44; weight 35 tons; builder, Pressed Steel Car Company. 

Many American railways now employ motor-cars in trains to haul 
ordinary freight, baggage, building material, and ore. Special motor 
cars, which carry theatrical scenery, express, milk, fruit, etc., are used 
in a train, or to haul coaches in local service. 

New York Central Railroad for its New York terminal service 
uses 47 electric locomotives, of 2200 h.p. each, while there are 137 
motor cars, of 480 h.p. each. These motor cars haul 63 coaches. Each 
motor car weighs 53 tons and each coach weighs 41 tons. The motor 
capacity of each motor-car train exceeds the motor capacity of each 
locomotive. In 1908 the locomotive mileage was 1,000,000 while the 
motor-car- mileage was 3,500,000. The importance of the motor-car 
train service is at once recognized. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTOR-CAR TRAINS. 

The characteristics of electric motor-car trains are, in part, identical 
with those for electric locomotives. In addition, other characteristics 
are those noted in the following ten headings: 

1. Flexibility is the most important feature, as is shown in operation. 
Cars are quickly added to or taken from trains to suit the volume of 
traffic. Single motor cars may be attached for the inbound trip at any 



MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 229 

terminal, junction, or branch; on the outbound trip, the train may be 
split up, and single cars detached for the branch line. Express or 
passenger cars may even be cut off, or put on the rear end of a train, 
near any siding or station, without stopping the train, when each car 
or group of cars has its independent motive power equipment. 

This plan to serve the station without delaying the train by a stop, now in prac- 
tice on many steam passenger trains in England, saves much time, and also the energy 
required to stop the entire train; but it is somewhat dangerous without an independ- 
ent source of motive power on the cars which are to be cut on or off. 

Flexibility in operation reduces the dead mileage. It allows that 
concentration of car movement so often desired. Changes are made 
with dispatch. Motor cars or trains may be added to or taken from the 
schedule; yet both the speed and economy are maintained. This is 
not possible with the overloaded or underloaded steam locomotive- 
hauled train. 

2. Acceleration rates are rapid and uniform in practice. The ac- 
celeration rate used with electric power was one of the first great advan- 
tages which attracted the attention of the traveling public. Schedules 
for train service seldom call for the high rates of acceleration which are 
possible. American electric roads use rates of 1.2 to 1.6 m.p.h.p.s. 

Steam railroad trains cannot gain speed as rapidly as electric motor- 
car trains, because high rates of acceleration require an enormous weight 
on drivers, and a large amount of energy. The use of heavy engines, 
and steam at long cut-offs, in frequent stop service, is expensive. 

The reasons for high acceleration of motor-car trains are: 

a. Weight of the motor-car train is on the drivers to a great ex- 
tent. A drawbar pull is provided which is ample, and proportional to 
the weight and length of the train. The slipping of drivers is avoided. 
The fastest car movement is possible with the greatest percentage of 
weight on the drivers; and this may be 4 to 6 times greater than when 
locomotives are used. 

b. Motive power for the train is increased gradually, with the varying 
length, and number of cars in the train. This feature provides for a 
constant acceleration rate, yet there is absolute freedom in arranging 
train intervals and schedules for rapid transit and for changes in traffic. 

c. Capacity from the central power station is fully sufficient to meet 
the requirements for rapid train acceleration. 

d. Energy required for propulsion of motor-car trains at a given 
schedule is least when they are started and stopped at the maximum 
rate of acceleration and retardation. This is because, first, the maxi- 
mum speed needed is less with a high acceleration which saves a small 
amount in train resistance, and, second, the speed at the beginning 
of braking is less and, consequently, less energy is absorbed and lost 



230 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



in braking. Economy requires that electric trains making frequent 
stops be equipped for starting and stopping as rapidly as possible and 
that train coasting be utilized. This requires the highest rate of ac- 
celeration^ the greatest drawbar pull per ton of train weight, and that 
the motive power be placed at intervals thruout the train. 



DRAWBAR PULL ON STEAM LOCOMOTIVES AND MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 

AS USED ON MANHATTAN ELEVATED RAILROAD, NEW YORK, AND IN 

HEAVY ELECTRIC TRAIN SERVICE IN MANY LOCATIONS. 



No. of 


Motor 


Drawbar 


Drawbar 


Weight 


Weight 


Weight 


Weight 


Drawbar 


Drawbar 


Ratio of 


cars 


cars 


pull per 


pull per 


elec. 


steam 


of 


of 


pull per 


pull per 


drawbar 


per 


per 


train 


train 


equip. 


locos. 


train 


train 


ton 


ton 


pulls 


train. 


train. 


elec. 


steam. 


(tons). 


(tons). 


elec. 


steam. 


elec. 


steam. 


per ton. 


3 


2 


27,000 


12,000 


14 


24 


74 


84 


365 


143 


2.5 


4 


3 


40,500 


12,000 


21 


24 


101 


104 


401 


115 


3.5 


5 


4 


54,000 


12,000 


28 


24 


128 


124 


422 


97 


4.3 


6 


4 


54,000 


12,000 


28 


24 


148 


144 


366 


83 


4.4 


7 


4 


54,000 


12,000 


28 


24 


168 


164 


329 


73 


4.5 


3 


2 


51,000 


50,000 


32 


100 


137 


205 


372 


244 


1.5 


4 


2 


51,000 


50,000 


32 


100 


172 


240 


296 


209 


1.4 


5 


3 


76,500 


50,000 


48 


100 


223 


275 


343 


182 


1.9 


6 


4 


102,000 


50,000 


64 


100 


274 


310 


272 


161 


1.7 


7 


4 


102,000 


50,000 


64 


100 


309 


345 


330 


145 


2.3 


8 


5 


127,500 


50,000 


90 


100 


360 


370 


344. 


135 


2.5 


9 


5 


127,500 


50,000 


90 


100 


395 


405 


315 


124 


2.5 



Manhattan elevated coaches weigh only 20 tons. The second set of figures, 
wherein the coaches weigh 35 tons, should be use for o^^dinary train service. 

The difference in weight is small except when there are few cars per train. 

When unusually rapid acceleration is required, as on Hudson and Manhattan 
R. R., all of the cars are motor cars. If few stops are to be made, three motor cars 
are sufficient for a 5- or 6-car train. 



3. High schedule speed is practical because there is great drawbar 
pull for rapid acceleration, and a central station power supply. Ade- 
quate service is provided for the ordinary, congested, n:iorning and 
evening traffic, with frequent stops in which a high schedule speed is 
absolutely essential. Rapid acceleration to full speed in the minimum 
time allows a lower maximum speed. 

High speeds, 75 miles per hour or more, are hard to attain with 
trains hauled by steam locomotives. Berlin-Zossen electric passenger 
cars repeatedly attained a speed of 125 m. p. h., an interesting record. 
The high speed which is possible with electric power exceeds that which 
can be obtained safely from a locomotive having reciprocating effort 
and unbalanced motion. 



MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 231 

"The power increases at a higher ratio than the square of the speed at higher 
speeds, and it would be necessary to use steam locomotives of such large dimensions 
that a large part of the motive power would be used in driving them alone, and thus 
the service could not be commercially practicable. The steam locomotive has there- 
fore not been considered in these projects for the high-speed railway, and electricity 
has been provided as motive power for the hauling of trains." 

4. Distribution of weight of the train on the rail is excellent. This 
decreases the intensity of pressure and of strains by distributing them 
along the roadbed, bridge, or elevated structure. Distributed weights 
and strains decrease the first cost of the road and the cost of track main- 
tenance, and increase the safety in operation. Total weights of motor- 
car and steam locomotive hauled trains were compared in Chapter III; 
and motor-car and electric locomotive hauled trains in the last table. 

5. Distribution of motive power thruout the train is ideal, in practical 
operation. Power is not concentrated in one or two locomotives at the 
head of the train. Strains transmitted to the supporting structures, along 
the car bodies, and thru the couplers are reduced. Capacity in trans- 
portation can thus be a maximum. 

6. Reliability of motor-car service must be admitted. The duplication 
of motors provides for a reserve in case of accident to individual motors. 
Controllers are complicated, but work remarkably well in practice. 

Interborough Rapid Transit Company, of New York City, operated 119 miles of 
elevated track and 80 miles of subway track, and in 1907 maintained 1439 motor cars and 
994 trailers. It was necessary for each car to run on an average 4000 miles per month, 
and to make 10,000 stops and starts during that time. Under these conditions, the 
average car mileage per delay due to electrical and mechanical causes was 32,642 in 
the case of the subway and 41,792 in the case of the elevated road. 

New York Central electrical zone records for 1908 showed that the multiple- 
unit cars traversed 3,500,000 miles with train delays of 830 minutes, about equally 
divided between electrical and mechanical causes. Katte, to New York Railroad 
Club, March 19, 1909. 

Hudson and Manhattan Railroad trains between New York and New Jersey, 
in March, 1911, ran 112,000 car-miles per delay of 1 minute. The service is severe, 
with a recognized disadvantage of underground operation, a headway during rush 
hours of 90 seconds, more passengers per car-mile than any rapid-transit line, numerous 
sharp curves, and grades from 2 to 4 1/2 per cent. The monthly car mileage exceeds 
600,000. 

Performances of this kind are unparalleled in steam transportation, 
and they deserve consideration and study. 

7. Similarity and duplication in equipment is an asset from an invest- 
ment and from an operating standpoint. 

8. Independence of each car is a most valuable physical advantage, 
to be utilized in varying the schedule, to cut out the dead mileage, to 
split at junctions, etc. 



232 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



9. Safety is assured in the operation of motor-car trains. The sub- 
ject as detailed under ''Characteristics of Electric Locomotives/' follows 




Fig. 55. — West Jersey & Seashore Railroad Motor-car Train. 

Altantic City-Cam den, New Jersey. 

Direct-current, third-rail equipment, 1906. 




Fig. 56. — Motor-car Truck used by West Jersey & Seashore Railroad. 
Baldvvin truck and General Electric 240-h. p. motors. 



a. Design of electric motors decreases strains and pounding. 

b. Control circuits prevent accidents. 

c. Automatic devices on controller safeguard operation. 



MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 



233 



d. Speed is increased with safety, by the design of motors. 
Speed may be limited by design or by control devices, 

e. Wheel bases which are long and rigid are avoided. 




Fig. 



57.— West Shore Railroad Three-car Train. 
Third-rail road, Syracuse to Utica, N. Y. 



f. Tests of equipment are facilitated and are rigid. 

g. Regeneration of energy in braking prevents accidents, 
h. Air brakes are used in tunnels with safety. 




Fig. 58. 



-Pittsburg, Harmony, Butler & New Castle Two-car Train. 
1200-volt, direct-current railway. 



i. Boilers and reciprocating mechanism are avoided. 
j. Exhaust steam and smoke are absent. 
k. Fire risk to property is decreased. 



234 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



1. Enginemen are not distracted with other duties, 
m. Meters are used to assist in intelligent operation, 
n. Weights are not excessive, and are distributed. 




Fig. 59. 



-Maryland Electric Railway. Baltimore and Annapolis Short Line Motor Car. 
Single-phase 6600-volt railway. 




Fig. 60. 



-Pittsburg and Butler Motor-car Trai 
Single-phase 6600-volt railway. 



A recent practice in motor-car train service is to place a steel baggage 
car at the head of each passenger train, so that, in case of collision or 
derailment, the safety to life will be increased. 



MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 



235 



10. Capacity is a prime characteristic of motor-car trains. The 
subject was treated in Chapter III, ''Advantages of Electric Traction." 
In addition: 




Fig. 61. — Erie Railroad. Rochester Division Motor-car Train. 




Fig. 62. — Rock Island Southern Motor-car Train. 



Motive power from the central station is available for the ordinary 
C- to 10-car train, the power supplied to which is usually larger than that 
required by the electric locomotive hauled train. Rapid acceleration, 
which is so often desired, requires abundant motive power. 



236 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



Terminal capacity is increased by more efficient train movements, 
absence of the locomotive turning, and rapid acceleration. 

ECONOMY OF OPERATION. 

Economy in transportation is of vital importance. It requires ability 
to furnish capacity, speed, and unexcelled service; to induce traffic, to 
prevent complaint, to get business in competition, and to hold it, are all 
advantageous, because business should be developed on a large scale to 
be most profitable. 




Fig. 63. — Salt Lake and Odgen Railway Motor-car Train. 



Economy of operation with electric motor-car trains is higher than 
with any other scheme of operation yet offered in railroading. This 
has been proved by results, and by use of such trains for the bulk of 
the suburban passenger train service from many large cities. 

The reasons for economy are grouped as follows: 

1. Maintenance of ways and structures is less because of the distribu- 
tion of train weight, stresses, and motive power. 

2. Maintenance of equipment is a minimum because of simplicity, 
lower cost of inspection, higher mileage, and higher rates of acceleration 
which allow a lower maximum speed. 

For comparison,— New York Subway in 1909 had 735 motor cars 
each equipped with two 240-h.p. motors, or an equipment of 350,000 
h.p. This would be equivalent to about 350 locomotives of 1000 h.p. 
each. Compare the small Interborough repair shop in use at the end of 
its line with the tools, machinery and the men, the round houses, shop 



MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 237 

equipment, washing plants, cinder pits, turn tables, etc., 'which would 
be required for 350 steam locomotives. 

Terminal charges would cost about $1.50 per steam locomotive, as 
compared with 22 cents per motor car. Maintenance and repairs in 
the two cases would show a cost from $2250 to $2750 per year per steam 
locomotive, and from $100 to $120 per year for a 400-h.p. motor-car 
equipment; or, including the steam and electric power plant, the total 
cost per motor-car is from $225 to $275 per car per year. 

Motor inspection and overhaul are made after every 1200 to 1500 miles. 

Manhattan Elevated Railroad records show that while the road was 
operated by steam until 1906, the cost of maintenance was 4.2 cents 
per train-mile, while with electric traction the cost is 2.1 cents per train- 
mile. Its data also show, — ^for steam operation a cost of .39 cent per 
car-mile; for electric operation a cost of .28 cent per car-mile. Had 
the weight and speed not been increased with electric traction, the 
results would have been .20 cent per car-mile. Stillwell. 

Twin City Rapid Transit Company, which operates the electric 
railway and interurban lines in and between Minneapolis, St, Paul, Still- 
water, and Minnetonka, 378 miles of track, with eight hundred 23-ton 
48-foot motor-cars, and 21 freight motor cars, each equipped with 240- 
to 300-h.p. per car, shows the following: 

"With a passenger car mileage of over 2,000,000 miles per month, we are doing 
very little rewinding of either armatures or fields. We are not having any trouble on 
account of motors overheating. During the year 1909, we have not averaged two 
men working as ^vinders per day and a great many days we have not had a single 
man working on armature windings." J. W. Smith, Master Mechanic. E. T. W., 
VI, 32. 

3. Wages are saved in the operation of trains for many reasons. 

The rate paid per hour is lower because the work is simple, more 
automatic, and less dangerous. The rate now paid by the New York 
Central, 38.5 cents per hour, is the same for handling either electric 
or steam trains; yet on less important traffic the wages are reduced. 

One engineman or motorman is used in place of two men, to hand e 
a train of 4 to 12 motor cars. 

Heavier trains are hauled with electric power. The increased weight 
and length make a saving in the cost of wages per ton-mile, per train- 
mile, and per passenger-mile. 

Faster tra'ns are hau'ed with the available capacity, which re- 
duces the trainmen's wages per passenger carried, or per ton of freight 
hauled. See table on ^'Schedule Speed of Trains, Increased by Elec- 
tric Traction," in Chapter XL 

Maintenance and inspection are greatly decreased. These and other 
reasons have been detailed in Chapter III under ''Wages." 



238 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



4. Fuel and power are saved in operation as is explained in Chapters 
III and VI. Four reasons for the sav.'ng are, briefly, 

Power is produced, and utiUzed efficiently. 

Dead weight is reduced. 

Fuel is used advantageously, and the total cost of fuel is reduced 
fully 50 per cent, in ordinary cases. 

Water power is often available to reduce the costs. 




Fig. 64. — Spokane and Inland Empire Railroad Motoh-car Tkain. 
The 6600-volt, 25-cycle system. Four 100-h.p. motors per 42-ton motorcar 




Fig. 65. — London, Brighton and South Coast Railway Motor-car Train. 
The 6600-volt, 25-cycle, single-phase system. Four 115-h. p. motors per motor car; two 55-ton 
motor cars ond one 35-ton coach per three-car train. Four 175-h. p. motors per motor car; two 60- 
ton motor cars and two 35-ton coaches per four-car train. 



5. Cost of maintenance and total cost of operation must be placed 
on a comparable basis, i. e., per car-mile, ton-mile, seat-mile, etc., rather 
than per train-mile. Comparisons with similar tables on the maintenance 
cost of electric locomotives are valuable where the two classes of service 



MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 



239 



are worked together. Operating cost for motor-car trains is presented 
quantitatively in the tables which follow. 



MAINTENANCE EXPENSE OF MOTORS PER CAR-MILE. 



Name of railway. 



Elec. 
equip. 




Boston Elevated 

Boston & Worcester ! 

Manhattan Elevated 0.25^ 

New York Subway 25 

Brooklyn Rapid Transit, Elev j .16 

New York Central [ 

Long Island R. R .76 

West Jersey & Seashore .66 

Philadelphia Rapid Transit 

Washington, Bait. & Annapolis .24 

Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley .84 

Wilkes-Barre & Hazelton .39 

Montreal Terminal Ry 

Hudson Valley \ 

Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville. 

Buffalo & Lockport .79 

Michigan United 

Indianapolis & Cincinnati .75 

Sixty street rys 

Twenty heavy electric rys 

Twenty electric heavy ry. power plants 

Scioto Valley Traction 

Aurora, Elgin & Chicago 

Chicago & Oak Park 

Metropolitan Elevated 

Northwestern Elevated 

South Side Elevated 

Minneapolis & St. Paul Suburban 

Spokane & Inland 

Central California Traction, 1200 volts 

Havana Electric Ry 

Ordinary electric locomotive per mile 

Ordinary steam locomotive per mile 



1.84( 

3.00 

2.14 

1.32 

1.63 

1.00 

1.01 

1.78 



1.00 



2 


17 


1 


49 


2 


29 




91 




38 




02 




55 




90 




41 




40 


3 


08 


2 


01 


2 


84 


5 


00 


8 


00 



Reference or authority. 



Mass. R. R. Commission. 
Annual report. 



E. R. J., March 28, 1908. 



Gibbs, 1910. 
Wood, 1911. 
Annual Report, 1909. 
E.R. J., May, 1911, p. 913. 



1.78 Annual Report, 1909. 

2.20 Annual Report, 1909. 

2.00 Annual Report, 1909. 

2.90 Annual Report, 1909. 



Annual Report, 1909. 
Renshaw, June, 1910. 
Mass. R. R. Com., 1908. 
Street, to New England 

R. R. Club, 1904. 
Annual Report, 1909. 
111. R. R. Com., 1908. 
111. R. R. Com., 1908. 
111. R. R. Com., 1908. 
111. R. R. Com., 1908. 
111. R. R. Com., 1908. 
Minn. R. R. Com., 1909. 
Annual Report, 1909. 
E. R. J., Oct. 2, 1909. 
Annual Report, 1909. 
See data. Chapter VII. 
{ See data. Chapter II. 



Some of the reports on electric equipment are per electric-car mile, and appar- 
ently others are per motor-car mile. 

New York Subway motor cars are overhauled every 65,000 miles. Inspection 
every 1200 miles costs 0.5 cent per car-mile. 

Long Island Railroad motor cars are overhauled every 60,000 car-miles. Inspec- 
tion every 100 car-miles costs 0.61 cent per car-mile. The cost of the same item 
for a .steam train is 1.14 cents. 



240 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

MAINTENANCE EXPENSE OF ELECTRIC CARS PER CAR-MILE. 



Name of railroad. 


No. of' 
motor 
cars. 


No. of 

electric 

cars. 


Electric car 
repairs and 
renewals. 


Electric 

car 
mileage. 


Cost per 

car-mile. 

Cents. 


New York Central 


137 

132 

93 

837 

951 

6 

18 

12 

6 

35 

17 

288 

54 

8 


200 

219 

93 


$33,897 
65,632 


3,500,000 

4,945,719 

4,552,531 

44,000,000 

34,000,000 

304,666 


0.96 


Pennsylvania-Long Island 

West Jersey & Seashore. .... . 


1.34 
1.01 


New York Subway, 1907 

Paris Subway, 1907 

ErieR. R. (1909) '. 












12 
37 

12 

7 
36 
17 

388 
78 


11,286 
6,838 
14,660 
10,877 
74,375 
23,770 
149,593 
39,311 


3.70 


Norfolk & Southern 




Boston & Maine 


746,857 
310,647 


1.90 


Wilkes-Barre & Hazleton 

Lackawanna & Wyoming Val . . 

Scioto Valley 

Northwestern Elevated 

Chicago & Milwaukee 

Rock Island Southern 


3.50 


1,164,821 
12,550,306 

2,878,864 
232,099 
550,897 


2.04 
1.20 
1.38 
1.32 


Waterloo, Cedar F. & Northern 




8,488 

2,840 

118,855 


1.54 


Colorado & Southern 


10 

25 

383 


20 

35 

908 




Spokane & Inland 


3,157,401 


2.66 


London Underground . 


1.00 









Data for the first roads listed are from special I. S. C. C. reports, for 1908, 1909 or 
1910; other data are from annual reports of the railroad companies, and from other 
sources. 

Cost of maintenance does not include depreciation or superintendence. Main- 
tenance expense varies with the number of cars operated, and with the number of 
stops per mile. 



MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 



241 



TOTAL OPERATING EXPENSE OF MOTOR-CAR TRAINS PER CAR-MILE. 
Includes Maintenance and Repairs, and all Items Except Fixed Charges. 



Name of railway. 


Cost per 
car-mile 
electric. 


Cost per 
car-mile 
steam. 


Reference, notes or 
authority. 


Boston Elevated 


$.1850 
.1556 
.1005 
.0974 
.1607 
.1858 
.1653 
.1780 
/ .2046 
\ .1819 
.1120 
.1900 
.1800 
.1190 
.1580 
.1548 
.1320 
.1660 
.1510 
.1100 
.1070 
.0910 
.1100 
.1170 
.1360 
.1970 
.1610 
.1980 
.2067 
.1750 
.2670 
.1610 
.1260 
.1950 




Annual Report. 
Annual Report. 


The Connecticut Company 

Manhattan Elevated 




.3900 


Public Service Com. 


Interborough Subway 




Brooklyn Rapid Transit, Ele. 
New York Central 




Annual Reports. 

E. R. J., Jan. 14,1911, p. 69. 




Hudson & Manhattan 


.2795 
.2230 
.2500 


Annual Report, 1910. 
Gibbs. 144-ton trains, 1908. 


Long Island R. R 


West Jersey & Seashore 

Wilkes- Barre & Hazelton 


Gibbs. 163-ton trains, 1908. 
Wood, 166-ton train, 1910. 
Annual Report, 1909. 
E. R. J., May, 1911, p. 913. 


Wash., Bait. & AnnapoHs 




Erie R. R 




Lyford. A. I. E. E., 1908. 
Annual Report, 1909. 
Indiana R. R. Com., 1908. 


Michigan United 




Indiana interurbans 




Lake Shore Electric 




Annual Report, 1910. 

Average. 

Annual Report, 1909. 

Illinois R. R. Com., 1908. 


Fifty-five electric roads 




Scioto Valley Traction 




Aurora, Elgin & Chicago ....... 

Chicago & Oak Park Elevated. . . 






Illinois R. R. Com., 1908. 


Metropolitan Elevated, Chicago . 
Northwestern Elevated, Chicago. 
South Side Elevated 




Illinois R. R. Com., 1908. 




IlKnois R. R. Com., 1908. 


.1060 
.1174 


Brinckerhoff. See p. 104. 


Lake Street Elevated 


Illinois R. R. Com., 1909. 


Rock Island Southern 


Illinois R. R. Com., 1909. 


lUinois Traction Company 

Milwaukee Northern . 




Illinois R. R. Com., 1908. 




Wisconsin R R Com , 1910 


Waterloo, Cedar F. & Northern. 




Annual Report, 1909. 
Iowa R. R. Com., 1909. 


Ft. Dodge, Des M. & So 




Minneapolis & St. Paul Suburb. 




Minn. R. R. Com., 1910. 


Spokane & Inland 




Annual Report, 1909. 
E. R. J., Oct. 2, 1909. 


Central California Traction. . . , 




Mersey Ry., England 

Underground Electric, London 1 


.2730 


Shaw, B.I.C.E., Nov., 1909. 
Annual report, 1908. 







Long Island did not make a radical change in length of trains when a simple 
substitution was made from steam to electric power. 

West Jersey & Seashore under steam operation ran twice as many cars per train, 
for express service, usually with a few stops; electric trains are shorter, 3 to 4 cars, 
and make frequent stops. The showing is, therefore, the more remarkable, since 
it costs decidedly more to run a short train with many stops than a thru train. 
16 



242 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



The expenses include power, maintenance of power plant, transmission lines, 
substations, contact lines, cars and motors, wages of all operators, traffic and gen- 
eral expense, and all operating expenses of the railway. 

The cost per car-mile wdth electric traction should be high because of the larger 
number of stops per mile, higher schedule speed, and greater power per train. 

COST OF MOTOR CARS WITH MOTOR EQUIPMENT. 



Name of railroad. 


Year 
noted. 


No. of 
seats. 


Length Wt. 
of car. tons. 


Motors & h.p. Kind of 
of motor. current. 


Estimated 
cost. 


Notes. 




1911 
1911 
1910 
1905 
1909 
1906 
1906 
1911 
1910 
1909 
1911 








4-150 
2-240 
4-200 
2-165 
4-150 
2-240 
2-240 
2-240 
2-200 
2-210 
14-240 


Alternate.. $30,000 
Direct .... 17,829 

Direct j 16,850 

Direct 


Steel. 


Boston & Albany. . . 
Boston & Eastern. . . 
Boston Elevated 









Steel 




55 ft. 


33 
87 
54 
48 
52 
41 
75 
350 






76 
68 

58 


70 
60 
56 






New York Central... 
West Jersey & S. S. 


Direct [ 

Direct 12,214 

Direct ; 19,5C0 

Direct 


Steel. 

Wood. 

Steel 


Long Island 


52 

68 

500 


51 

67 

510 


Steel. 


Pennsylvania 

Interborough 


Direct 18,500 

Direct 110,000 


Steel. 
Steel. 



Cost of converting a 38-ton steam coach to a motor car, about $3800. 

Cost of cars with 4-motor, 125-h.p. equipment, and multiple-unit control, direct current 
$19,000; and alternating current $24,500; ditto 50-h.p., direct-current, for interurban service, 
$6000; one truck, $1000. See cost of steam cars, Ry. Age Gazette, Sept. 30, 1910, p. 578. 

MOTOR-CAR VERSUS LOCOMOTIVE -HAULED TRAINS. 

Comparisons of motor-car trains and locomotive hauled trains show: 
Drawbar pull of electric motor-car trains has been shown to be from 
1.5 to 4.5 times greater than steam locomotive-hauled trains. 

Weight of a motor-car train is less than that of an electric locomo- 
tive hauled train. The difference amounts to about 44 per cent, for 
a 2-car train; 30 per cent, for a 3-car train; and down to 12 per cent, 
for 6-, 8-, and 10-car trains. This is shown by the examples below: 

> COMPARISON OF TRAIN WEIGHT, ELECTRIC AND STEAM. 

Based on the same Tractive Effort and Number of Seats. 



Service. 


Light suburban. 


Heavy railway. 


Motive power. 


Electric Motor-car 
locomotive. trains. 


Steam loco- 
motive. 


Motor-car 
trains. 


Wt. of loco, tons . 
Wt. of cars, tons . 
Wt. total, tons. . . 

Saving with 

Saving with 


92 

3@36, 108 
200 

3 cars. 
2 cars. 




3@46, 138 
138 

31% 

44% 


165 

6@60, 360 

525 

6 cars. 

7 cars. 




6@75, 450 
450 

14% 
10% 



MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 



243 



COMPARISON OF TRAIN WEIGHTS, ELECTRIC AND STEAM. 
Based on Ordinary Suburban Service. 



New York Central & 
Hudson River R. R. 



Steam locomotive 
service. 



Motor-car train 
service. 



Wt. of steam locomotives, tons. . 

Wt. of motor cars, tons 

Wt. of coaches, tons 

Wt. of passengers, tons 

Wt. total, tons 



138 



6-200 
12 

350 





4-216 

2- 82 

12 

"310 



Weight was reduced 40 tons per train, for the same number of seats. S. R. J., 
Nov. 4, 1905, p. 837. 

AYeight of motor cars is increased gradually and in proportion to the 
train length. Fixed dead weight of locomotive and tender are cut out, 
and an economy is effected in the ton-mileage. North-Eastern Rail- 
way of England, which electrified its steam road in 1904, has in- 
creased its train-mileage 100 per cent., yet its ton-mileage has not been 
increased. 

Weight distribution is excellent. Shearing and deflecting strains on 
structures are reduced. 

Flexibility of motor cars decreases the cost of shunting or switching. 
Space is saved in restricted yards. 

Acceleration for any train combination is the most rapid. ^^ Equal 
acceleration, speed, and equality of work from each motor car whatever 
the number of cars in a train. " Sprague. 

Lowes: maximum speed is obtained with a given schedule speed. 

Highest schedule speed is obtained with a given maximum speed. 

Fuel expenditure per car-mile is lowest with motor cars. 

Cost of operation is also lowest with the motor-car train. 

Unless it is practical to operate trains with a fixed number of coaches, 
the motor-car train equipment has all the major operating advantages. 

Investment for motor car trains is greater; but is compensated by im- 
proved facilities for handling traffic and increased gross and net earnings. 

See ''Advantages of Locomotives over Motor-car Trains," Chapter VII. 

MOTOR CARS IN TRAINS VERSUS SINGLE MOTOR CARS. 

The proper choice for a given service, which may be supplied either 
by 2- or 3-car trains, or by more frequent service with single cars, is 
determined by gross earnings or traffic productivity and operating 
expenses. 



244 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



Traffic may be attracted by greater comfort or better accomodations. 
For example, seats may be offered in place of straps; or several cars per 
train to provide smoother riding qualities. 

Economy of operation is higher with trains than with single cars, per 
seat-mile and per ton-mile because: 

Wages are saved. The saving increases with the train length. 

Power consumption is greatly decreased because there is less friction 
per ton. See ^Tower Required for Trains." 

Maintenance is less per ton-mile because less power and fewer motors 
are required for train service than for single cars. 



ARRANGEMENT OF MOTOR CARS AND COACHES IN TRAINS. 

Arrangement of motor cars and coaches in trains is detailed in the 
tabular data at the end of this chapter. One example is cited: 

Long Island Railroad has 23 different types of local and express 
train runs, over 13 different routes. The distance between stops for 
local trains varies between 1.6 and 1.0 miles; and for express trains, the 
distance between stops is as much as 9.6 miles. On an average there 
are 3 to 4 cars per train. 

Motors on 136 motor cars consist of two 200-h. p. direct-current 
units. A gear ratio of 2.32 is used. Weight of motor car is 38 to 41 
tons, and coaches weigh 31 tons. 



MOTOR CARS PER COACH IN LONG ISLAND R. R. TRAINS. 



Number of cars. 


Local service. 


Express service. 


Two-car train 


Two motor cars 


One motor car. 




No coaches 


One coach. 


Three-car train 


Two motor cars 


Two motor cars. 




One coach. . . 


One coach. 


Four-car train 


Three motor cars 


Two motor cars. 


Five-car train 


One coach. 
Three motor cars 


Two coaches. 
Three motor cars. 




Two coaches 


Two coaches. 


Six-car train 


Four motor cars . ... 


Three motor cars. 


Seven-car train 


Two coaches. 

Four motor cars 


Three coaches. 
Four motor cars. 


Eiffht-car train .... 


Three coaches. 
Five motor cars 


Three coaches. 
Four motor cars. 




Three trailers 


Four coaches. 









MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 245 

CONTROL OF MULTIPLE-UNIT TRAINS AND LOCOMOTIVES. 

Train control for electric cars was systematized in 1898. Mr. Frank 
J. Sprague should be given the credit for this work, which was of greatest 
importance in the history of electric traction. 

In the early days, motor cars hauled trailers. Then followed a period 
when two mechanically coupled motor cars were required, each operated 
by a separate motorman. Electric wires running from car to car were 
then tried, but that plan was expensive and the space in a car for a con- 
troller which could handle the power for several cars was not available. 
Predictions were made that the electric locomotive would be used for 
local trains. When plans were made for the first electric trains in 
Chicago, in 1896, the General Electric engineers and the Westinghouse 
engineers reported that the multiple-unit motor-car train scheme was 
impossible, not practical if it were possible, and therefore valueless. 

With the assistance of Mr. F. H. Shepard, who developed the details, 
Mr. Sprague perfected his multiple-unit plan, demonstrated the success 
of the scheme, and got it adopted by the South Side Elevated Railroad of 
Chicago. The first British road to use multiple-unit control was the Great 
Northern and City Railway, in 1904. Elec. World, March 5, 1904. 
Most of the electric trains in America and Europe are now operated by 
multiple-unit control equipment on motor cars and locomotives. More 
recently, the apparatus used has been adopted for large cars, many of 
which do not run in trains. 

Multiple-unit train operation is defined by Sprague: 

"A semi-automatic system of control which permits of the aggregation of two or 
more transportation units, each equipped with sufficient power only to fulfill the 
requirements of that unit, with means at two or more points on the unit for operating 
it thru a secondary control, and a train fine for allowing two or more of such units, 
grouped together without regard to end relation, or sequence, to be simultaneously 
operated from any point in the train." A. I. E. E., May, 1899; S. R. J., May 4, 1901. 

Multiple-unit control is complicated, yet the units in the mechanism 
are so perfected that, like those in a clock, they form a reliable aggregate. 
The control equipment is wonderfully reliable. 

Hudson and Manhattan Railroad in April, 1910, ran 504,565 car-miles 
in the severest motor-car train service in America; yet there was one 
delay per 72,081 car-miles, and one detention chargeable to control equip- 
ment per 168,188 car-miles. 

Train control is distinguished from single-car control, as in the latter 
the switch contacts in the drum controller are usually operated by hand. 
In train control the contact switches are placed under the car and are 
controlled either by solenoid action on main-circuit contactor switches 
as in the Sprague-General Electric method; or by electro-magnetic action 



246 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



oil valves, and compressed air pressure which closes niain-circuit con- 
tactor switches, as in the Westinghouse electro-pneumatic method. 
General Electric control embodies the Sprague control. A train cable 
which carries a small line current connects the control circuits thruout 
the train. The contactors, which are simply heavy switches, are operated 
by power from this cable. The line voltage must exceed one-half the 

normal voltage before the switches 
will operate. The magnetic opera- 
tion of the contactor causes a 
quick make and break of the cir- 
cuit. The control scheme is posi- 
tive and automatic. The rate of 
acceleration is fixed and, with the 
limit devices, a safe, continuous, 
and efficient action is provided, 
to prevent damage to field and 
armature. 

The master controller is placed 
at each end of each car. The 
small current in the control circuit, 
about 2 amperes per motor car, 
passes thru the master controller 
to the several points along the train 
thru a 10-wire train line. 

The master controller does not 
act directly, but governs the opera- 
tion of motor controllers or con- 
tactors under each car, which in 
turn control the rheostats, switch- 
ing, grouping of motors, parallel- 
ing, reversing, etc., in the (inde- 
pendent) power circuits on each 
car. Energizing the proper wires - 
of any master controller on the 
train causes the corresponding 
switch contactors to move simultaneously on all the motor cars. 

Auxiliary apparatus for each motor car includes switch contactor 
groups, cut outs, current relays to prevent overload, potential relay to 
open motor circuit in case of no voltage, circuit breakers, jumpers, etc. 
Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company developed the 
multiple-unit train control under the name of the electro-pneumatic 
system. The first road to adopt the Westinghouse plan was the Kings 
County Elevated Railway of Brooklyn in 1898. A description of the 




Fig. 66. — General Electric Train 
Controller. 



MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 



247 



early apparatus was given in St. Ry. Journ., October, 1899. This 
apparatus was perfected by F. H. Shepard and Wm. Cooper. 

Westinghouse electro-pneumatic system involves the operation of 




Fig. 67. 




Fig. 68. 
Figs. 67-68. — Electric Train Control Cable and Coupler Sockets. 

circuit controlling switches by means of compressed air from the brak- 
ing system. Small air cjdinders, which close the motor circuit switches, 
operate against powerful springs, and when the air pressure is removed 
the springs quickly open the switch. Admission and release of air are 



248 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



governed by electrically operated valves, the current for which comes 
from a 14-volt storage battery on each car. Line voltage is not 
brought into the car, cab, or controller. The train line carries only the 
14-volt battery current. The motor circuit in each car is independent, 
and all wiring is well grouped at the motor truck end of the car. Master 
controllers are placed at each end of each car. All of the current which 
is used for the operation of all of the switches on the train goes thru the 
master controller which is being used, but the current for operating 
the switches on each motor car is obtained from the battery. Auxiliary 




Fig. 69. — General Electric Contractor Box. 



apparatus includes a current limit switch for each motor, switch con- 
tactor groups, cut outs, circuit breakers, and car jumper connections. 

Multiple-unit control equipments for light trains have recently been 
improved, and are superseding platform control. They are reliable, and 
remove all power wiring and heavy current-carrying parts from the 
vestibules, thus increasing the safety to employees and passengers. 

Advantages of independent storage batteries versus line voltage, for automatic 
control systems: 

Ability to reverse and buck motors, with quadruple equipment, when air brakes 
fail, and when power is off the line or when trolley leaves the contact wire. 

Controller is independent of low line voltage 

Fuses in control circuits, which may blow and render control inoperative in 
emergencies, are eliminated. 

Trouble with defective insulation in train line, and false operation, are reduced. 

Burning and scoring of contact fingers is reduced. 

Danger from high line voltages in the cab is reduced. 

Disadvantages of electric-pneumatic control: 
Complication is caused by the additional equipment used. 



MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 249 

Batteries, charging relays, and terminals must be mounted on rubber cushions, 
to prevent %dbration from breaking the more delicate parts. 

Air valves and pneumatic switches become clogged by scale in the air pipes, and 
a little dirt under the controlling fingers can prevent action in the low- voltage circuit. 

Control of locomotives involves the same principles as control of 
motor-car trains; but the capacity of each motor is greater. 

Acceleration must be relatively more uniform to prevent breakage of 
couplers, and strains on equipment. With uniformity of application, a 
very much greater effort can be exerted than when the pull is irregular. 
The controller must therefore have about double the number of points 
or fcteps used for passenger trains. The design is such that the current is 
not taken off the motors after it is once applied, i. e., the circuit is not 
opened to change motor combinations from series to parallel, or to con- 
catenation, or to change the number of poles. The so-called "bridging" 
plan of connection is desirable, not the open-circuit plan. Transformer- 
tap control is perfect, when there is a reasonable number of steps. In- 
duction regulator control is ideal. Water rheostats, used on European 
locomotives, provide absolutely uniform graduations of resistance. 

Results are a failure in railroading if the accelerating force is not 
properly applied to the train. In passenger service, an acceleration rate 
which varies from 1.2 to 1.6 m. p. h. p. s. is disagreeable, while a steady 
acceleration rate of 2.0 m. p. h. p. s. is not disagreeable. These matters need 
consideration, because the gain by uniform and rapid acceleration is 
so important. In locomotives for freight service, variation in control 
rate is sure to result disastrously, to jerk out drawbars, and to cause ac- 
cidents and delays. 

Control systems must be semi-automatic in action, and must also 
provide a check on the rate of acceleration, yet allow any lower rate 
which is desired. Should locomotives or cars break apart, the control 
current must be automatically and instantaneously cut out from the 
other locomotive or motor cars. The ability of the engineman to control 
the locomotive or train must not be lost, if the train cable is short-circuited. 

Multiple -unit operation with polyphase motors under the ordinary 
conditions of railroad operation, was at first difficult because of the 
small air gaps and the difference of duty with varying driver diameters. 
Consult: St. Ry. Journ., March 24, 1906, page 462. 

" Multiple-unit grouping and operation of three-phase motors is ordinarily imprac- 
ticable because of the small slip." Sprague, to A. I. E. E., May 21, 1907, p. 706. 

Later experience modifies the above statements. It is necessary to 
have motor-car wheels or locomotive drivers of about the same diameter. 
The wheels which have the slightly larger diameters, on any car or loco- 
motive, whether coupled or not, will tend to run faster; and thus, by slip 



250 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

and wear, the diameters tend to equalize. In the shop, some attention 
must be given to see that wheels do not have widely varying diameters. 

Ganz Electric Co., on installations for Italian State Railway, and 
General Electric Company, for the Great Northern Railway locomotives, 
simply insert a small, but wasteful, resistance in the rotors of the motor. 
This is done automatically, on the Giovi locomotives. 

Italian State Railway and Swiss Federal Railway have made tests with 
coupled three-phase locomotives, also with a locomotive placed at each 
end of the train, and on old and new locomotives having widely different 
driver diameters but with the same rated speed; and the record published 
shows that no serious difficulties have been encountered due to over- 
heating of particular locomotives or motors. 

Simplon locomotives, manufactured by Brown, Boveri and Company, 
use a squirrel-cage rotor, with a 7 per cent, drop in speed from no load to 
full load, which allows considerable variation in driver diameters. 

TECHNICAL DESCRIPTIONS OF MOTOR-CAR TRAINS. 

New York Central motor-car trains provide for suburban service fr- . 
the New York terminal (Grand Central Station) to North White Plai ^ , 
23.5 miles north on the Harlem Division; also to Hastings, 19 miles no: i 
on the Hudson Division. About 137 motor cars are used, each weighi ^ 
53 tons, and 63 coaches, each weighing 41 tons. Eight-car trains, 5 mo' : 
and 3 coaches, have 2400-h. p. in motor equipment. Such a train wei^ s 
over 420 tons and in accelerating at the rate of 1.3 m. p. h. p. s. requi: i 
a drawbar or tractive effort of about 138 pounds per ton or 55,200 poun i 
total. Almost twice this amount is available for traction, or, the accelerj t 
ing rate could be doubled without slipping the wheels. One truck 
each motor car is equipped with two 240-h. p., 660-volt, direct-currei , 
interpole motors, with a 1.88 gear ratio. See Figure 53. 

Pennsylvania Railroad in 1910, for its New York tunnel and termir . 
service, began the use of 157-ton 2500-h.p. electric locomotives; al 
450-ton, 6-car, 2520-h.p. motor-car trains for its New York-Lo: 
Island, suburban service; and in 1911 to Newark, New Jersey. T 
motor-car train requires greater energy than the locomotive becau 
of the continuity of service, the higher acceleration, and the freque-iu 
stops. 

Motor-car train equipment already purchased consists of about 225 steer motor 
cars, for passenger service. Pennsylvania standard trucks are used with side-extended 
bolster springs and 8.5-foot wheel bases. Power equipment per motor car consists of 
two Westinghouse 215-h.p., direct-current motors. Forced draft is used to cool and 
to keep out the dust and grit. The entire axle is enclosed to keep the dust out of 
bearings. The motor equipment was described under Ventilation of Motors. See 
Figure 42, page 184. Each car is a motor car and weighs 53 tons. 



MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 



251 



Long Island Railroad, a subsidiary company, operates 138 steel 38- to 
41-ton passenger motor cars, with two 200-h.p. motors per car, for 
suburban service west of Brooklyn to distant points on Long Island. 




h 



Fig. 70. — Long Island Railroad Motor-car Train. Steel Coaches 



- New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad purchased, in 1909, 

]_ notor cars and 6 trail coaches for its local service between New York 

J Gy and Stamford, Connecticut, 34 miles. The motor cars are designed 

pull 2 trail cars. Steel cars, built by the Standard Steel Car Company, 




Fig. 71.- 



-New York, New Haven and Kartford Multiple Unit 87-ton Motor Car. 
Operated in train.s on the New York Division, 1909. 



are 70 feet long. Seats are arranged for 76 passengers. Motor car weighs 
87 tons and coaches 50. These are the heaviest motor cars yet built. 
The electric system employed is the 11,000-volt, 25-cycle, single-phase. 



252 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



Motors per car consist of four 150-h.p., 600-ainpere, 235-volt West- 
inghouse units, with a 3.30 gear ratio. The gear is mounted on a quill 
which surrounds the axle (with 9/16-inch clearance). There are 4 drive 
pins which fit into pockets in the drivers, and helical springs which sur- 




FiG. 72. — New York, New Haven and Hartford Truck Used on Motor-car Trains. 
Truck for two single-phase, 150-h. p., quill-mounted, Westinghouse motors; used on New York 
Division. Trucks built by Standard Motor Truck Company. ; 

"! 

round the driving pins and carry the weight of the quill, gear, and half of 
the motor, and transmit the driving action or torque smoothly to the car 
wheels. This plan increases the weight and cost, and the diameter of the 




Fig. 73. — New York, New Haven and Hartford Truck used on Motor-car Trains. 
Truck for two single-phase, 125-h. p., nose-mounted. General Electric motors used on New Canaan 

Branch. 



gear seat and motor axle bearings. The motor is entirely spring-sup- 
ported to effect good riding qualities and to minimize track destruction. 
Control scheme used is the electro-pneumatic. Automatic accelera- 
tion is provided at the rate of .5 m. p. h. p. s. when hauling 2 coaches, 



MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 



253 



PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTOR CARS ON NEW YORK, 
NEW HAVEN & HARTFORD R. R., NEW YORK DIVISION. 



Current 
amperes. 


Power 
factor. 


Speed 
m. p. h. 


Tractive 
effort lb. 


Power 
h.p. 


Notes or conditions. 


4000 
2400 
1800 
1200 
1130 


.830 
.925 
.952 
.970 
.975 


17.5 
25.3 
30.4 
41.0 
45.0 


17,600 
8,800 
5,600 
2,700 
2,000 


820 
600 
448 
290 
240 


Gear ratio 3.3; wheels 42 in. 
One-hour rating at 235 volts. 
Continuous capacity with 

forced ventilation. 
Four motors per motor car. 



Aspinwall, Tests, Elec. Journal, Nov., 1909; Trucks, E. R. J., Dec. 12, 1908. 



Motor-car trains with 3 cars weigh 187 tons and have 600-h.p. niotor 
capacity; while the locomotive-hauled trains with 6 cars and double the 
seating capacity weigh about 402 tons and have 960-h.p. niotor capacity. 
Significant comparisons may be made for suburban service. 

Chicago, Lake Shore & South Bend Railway uses 4 single-phase, 125- 
h.p. motors per car and 3-car passenger trains. Cars weigh 56 tons. 
Trolley voltage is 6000 normally, but 600 volts alternating in the cities. 
Motors operate in series-parallel, 2 motors on each truck being in series. 

A 250-kw. oil-insulated, self-cooled auto-transformer varies the volt- 
age to the motors by means of a series of 8 taps. The master controller 
is operated with current from two 15-volt batteries. Manipulation of 
the controller handle operates magnets, which operate controller air 
valves, which in turn operate contactors in a main switch group to vary 
the voltage from the transformer from 62 volts to 250 volts. 

Coaches without motors are equipped with master controllers. Snow 
plows not fitted with motors are designed to be pushed by motor cars and 
are equipped with master controllers and brake-train valves so that any 
number of cars can be coupled back of a plow and controlled from the 
look-out deck. 

An 11-car train, made up of six 500-h.p. motor cars and 5 coaches, 
and operated by multiple-unit control, recently made an 80-mile run on 
this road. Incidentally, with the extremely small loss on the 6000-volt 
contact line, long trains can be operated successfully over long 
distances. 

Valtellina Railway of Italy uses 58-ton motor cars which haul five 22- 
ton coaches, making a 168-ton train. There are 2 twin 250-h.p., 15- 
cycle, three-phase gearless motors, mounted on a hollow shaft, per motor 
car. Power is transmitted to 46-inch drivers by flexible couplings. See 
drawings in Parshall and Hobart's ''Electric Railway Engineering." 



254 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 




Fio. 74. — Valtellina Railway, Italy, Motor Truck for Passenger Cars, 1902. 




Fro. 75. — West Jersey & Seashore Railroad, Motors Mounted on Brill Trucks. 
G. E., No. 69, 240 h. p., 600-volt, direct-current motors. 



MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 



255 




Fig. 76. — Motor-car Truck used on the Hudson & Manhattan Railroad. 
Wheel base 78 inches. Wheels 34 inches. Weight of truck, 11,750 pounds; with two 160-h. p. 

motors, 22,750 pounds. 




Fig. 77. — J. G. Brill Company'.s M< 



oK-CAR Truck for Heavy Cars in High-speed Passenger 
Service. 



256 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



RAILWAYS OPERATING MOTOR-CAR TRAINS. PART I. 

Geographical Distribution. Direct-current 600-volt System. 





Largest city terminals. 


Number of cars. 


Number of miles. 


Name of railway. 


















Motor 


Coach. 


Total. 


Between 
terminals. 


Right- 
of-way. 


Mileage. 


Boston & Maine 


Concord-Manchester. . 


12 





12 


16 


16 


50 


Boston Elevated 


Boston suburbs 


225 


91 


316 


11 


6 


26 


Boston & Worcester. . . 


Boston- Woicester . . . 


60 





60 


46 


37 


82 


New York Central 


f N.Y.-N.WhitePlains 
N. Y.-Hastings. 


137 


63 


200 


24 1 
19/ 


45 


152 


Manhattan Elevated . . 


Manhattan- Bronx . . . 


895 


759 


1754 


13 


50 


119 


Interborough Subway. 


Manhattan-Brooklyn . 


910 


336 


1246 


18 


26 


85 


Hudson & Manhattan . 


New York- Jersey C . . 


200 





200 


8 


8 


18 


Brooklyn Rapid Trans. 


Brooklyn 


659 


269 


928 


13 


50 


107 


Pennsylvania R.R.: 
















Long Island R.R .... 


Brooklyn-Long I 


1.36 


89 


225 


26 


62 


164 


Pennsylvania Tun- 


New York- Long I . . . . 


225 





225 


15 


15 


50 


nel & Terminal. 


Jersey City-Newark. . 


50 





50 


9 


9 


20 


West Jersey & Sea. 


Camden- Atlantic C. . . 


108 





108 


65 


75 


154 


Philadelphia Rapid Tr. 


Philadelphia Elev 


150 





150 


8 


8 


18 


Philadelphia & West'n. 


Phila.-Norristown. . . . 


28 





28 


17 


20 


40 


Albany Southern R.R. . 


Albany-Hudson 


45 




45 


38 


34 


62 


West Shore R.R 


Utica-Syracuse 


21 





21 


44 


43 


114 


Rochester,Syracuse&E. 


Syracuse- Rochester . . 


82 





82 


86 


80 


265 


Buffalo, Lockport & R. 




19 






57 


50 


58 


International Ry 

Lackawanna & Wyo- 


Lockport- Buffalo . 






26 


25 


20 


74 


Wilkes- Barre-Car- 


35 


1 


361 


25 


25 


50 


ming Valley. 


bondale. 














Wilkes-Barre & Hazel- 


Wilkes-Barre-Hazel- 


6 


1 


70 


31 


31 


32 


ton. 


ton. 














Mahoning & Shenango . 


New Castle- Warren. . 








34 




149 


Washington, Balti- 


Baltimore- Washing- 


43 





43 


35 


50 


100 


more & Annapolis. 


ton. 














Michigan United Rys . . 


Jackson-Kalamazoo . 


30 




159 


71 


125 


254 


Grand Rapids, Grand 


Grand Rapids-Muske- 


30 


10 


40 


45 


45 


49 


Haven & Muskegon. 


gon. 














Dayton & Troy 


Dayton-Troy 


25 





25 


31 


31 


49 


Lake Shore Electric . . 


Cleveland-Toledo . . . 








119 
50 




215 


Scioto Valley Traction. 


Columbu«-Chillicothe. 


17 





17 


79 












55 




850 


Indianapolis, Col. & S. 


Indianapolis-Louis- 
ville. 


10 






117 


83 


1 55 


Indianapolis&Louisv 






Illinois Traction 


St. Louis-Danville . . . 


600 





600 


223 




550 



MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 



257 



RAILWAYS OPERATING MOTOR-CAR TRAINS, 1911. PART I. 
Direct-current 600- volt System. 



Name of railway. 



Largest city terminals. 



Number of cars. 



Motor 



Coach. 



Total. 



Number of miles. 



Between 
terminals. 



Right- 
of-way. 



Mileage. 



Aurora, Elgin & Chi- 
cago. 

South Side Elevated. . 
Chicago & Oak Park 
Metropolitan West Side 
Northwestern Elevated 
Chicago & Milwaukee 
Milwaukee Electric .... 

Milwaukee Northern . . . 
Fort Dodge, Des Moines 

& Southern. 
Waterloo, Cedar Falls 

& Northern. 
Interurban Ry 



Northern Texas . . . . 
Denver & Interurban . 
Salt Lake & Ogden . . 
Spokane & Inland . . . 



Puget Sound Electric. . 

Oregon Electric 

Portland Railway 

Northern Electric 

Southern Pacific 

San Francisco, Oakland 

& San Jose. 
Los Angeles Pacific .... 

Pacific Electric 



Chicago- Aurora . . . 
Chicago-Elgin. . . . 
Chicago-Freeport . 

Chicago 

Chicago 

Chicago 

Chicago 

Chicago-Milwaukee. . . 
Milwaukee- Water- 
town. 
Milwaukee-Sheboygan 
Ft. Dodge-Des. M 



Waterloo- Waverly 



Des Moines-Colfax . . . 
Des Moines-Perry .... 
Ft. Worth-Sherman . . 

Denver- Boulder 

Salt Lake-Ogden 

Spokane-Hay den Lake 

Spokane-Colfax 

Spokane-Moscow 

Seattle-Tacoma 

Portland-Salem 

Portland-Cazadero . . . 
Sacramento-Chico. . . . 
Alameda-Oakland .... 
Oakland suburbs 



Los Angeles-Santa 

Monica. 
Los Angeles -Coast . . 



115 

200 

65 

225 

288 
50 
30 

12 
20 



25 



100 
24 
30 
42 

100 
38 

121 





200 



280 

100 

25 

15 



15 



33 



60 

40 

225 



115 

400 

65 

505 

388 

75 

45 

21 



55 



113 
25 
30 



75 



150 
24 
63 
42 

160 
78 

486 

675 



40 
42 
125 



10 



57 
86 



40 



27 



55 



80 
65 
45 
15 



160 
47 
20 
57 
51 
186 
137 

64 
140 

100 



72 
86 
54 



287 

200 
80 
472 
130 
100 
35 

214 

600 



17 



258 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



RAILWAYS OPERATING MOTOR-CAR TRAINS. PART I. 

Direct-current 600-volt System. 





Largest city 
terminals. 


Number of cars. 


Number of miles. 


Name of railway. 


Motor. 


Coach. 


Total. 


Between 
terminals. 


Right- 
of-way. 


mile- 
age. 


Central London 


London 


68 
383 
197 

36 

60 

72 

35 

40 
130 
- 

20 


172 

525 

235 

■72 

90 

146 

35 

80 

210 

170 

12 


240 
908 
432 
108 
150 
218 

70 
120 
340 
170 

32 


7 


7 


1" 


London Electric 




168 






25 
3 
8 

10 
4 
5 

30 

s 

15 
5 
40 
7 
35 
18 
14 
31 


25 
5 , 

8 

10 

4 

30 

8 

2 
15 

5 
40 

7 
35 
18 
14 
31 


49 


Baker St. & Waterloo 




10 


Charing Cross E. & H. ... 


London 


16 


Great Northern, P. & B . 


London 


20 


Great Northern & City . . . 




8 


Great Western, M & W L 


London 


11 


Metropolitan Ry 


London 


60 


City & South London 


London . . 


16 


Waterloo & City 


London .... 


4 


London & North Western 


London. . . . 


30 


Mersey Ry 


Liverpool-Birkenhead 
Liverpool-Southport. . 
Liverpool-Seaforth . . . 
NewCastle-on-Tyne.. 

Cologne-Bonn 

Berlin 


24 
80 
44 
62 
10 
139 
570 


37 
52 
7 
44 
10 
52 
381 


61 
132 

51 
106 

20 
191 
951 


10 


Lancashire & Yorkshire . 
Liverpool Overhead ..... 

North-Eastern 

Rhine Shore 


82 
13 
82 
30 


Berlin Overhead & Under 


26 


Paris-Metropolitan 


Paris 


63 


Paris-Lyons-Mediter- 


Paris 


40 


ranean. 
Paris-Orleans .- 


Paris-Juvisy 








12 


12 


46 


West of France 










16 


Milan- Varese-Porto 
Ceresio 


Milan-Porto Ceresio. . 


20 


20 


40 


46 


46 


81 




Fig. 78. — Cologne-Bonn Railway. Motor-car Train. 
Two 32-ton motor cars each with two 130-h. p., 500-volt, direct-current, interpole, Siemens 
motors, operating on a 1000-volt trolley line, and two 18-ton coaches per four-car train, 1906. 



MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 



259 



RAILWAYS OPERATING MOTOR-CAR TRAINS. PART II. 
Direct-current 600- volt System. 



Name of railway. 



No. of 
motor 
cars. 



Motors No. 
and 
h.p. 



Tons, 

motor 

car. 



Tons 

per 

coach. 



Train made of 



Motor 



Coaches. Total 



Boston & Maine 

Boston Elevated 

Boston & Worcester 

"New York Central 

Manhattan Elevated 

In terbo rough Subway 

Hudson & Manhattan 

Brooklyn Rapid Transit 

Pennsylvania R. R. : 

Long Island R. R 

Penn. Tunnel & Terminal... . 

Newark Rapid Transit 

West Jersey & Seashore 

West Jersey & Seashore 

Philadelphia Elevated 

Philadelphia & Western 

Albany Southern 

West Shore R. R 

Rochester, Syracuse & Eastern . 
Buffalo, Lockport & Rochester. 
Lackawanna & Wyoming Val. 

Wilkes-Barre & Hazelton 

Washington, Baltimore & An- 
napolis. 

Lake Shore Electric 

Grand Rap ids, Grand Haven & M 

Scioto Valley Traction 

South Side Elevated, Chicago.. 

Chicago & Oak Park 

Metropolitan West Side 

Aurora, Elgin & Chicago 

Northwestern Elevated, Chicago 
Chicago & Milwaukee Electric 

Milwaukee Electric 

Indiana Union Traction 

Indianapolis & Louisville 

Illinois Traction 

Ft. Dodge, Des Moines & South. 

Puget Sound Electric 

North Shore Ry., California. . . 

Southern Pacific Company 

San Fran. Oakland & San Jose. 
Los Angeles Pacific 



12 
225 

60 
137 



895 

910 
200 
659 



136 
225 

50 
93 
15 

150 
28 
45 
21 
82 
19 
35 
6 
40 
3 
20 
30 
17 

200 

65 
225 
115 
228 

50 

30 
285 

10 
600 

20 
100 

37 
100 

38 
121 



4-40 
2-175 
4-50 
2-240 



2-125 

2-240 
2-160 
2-200 



2-200 

2-215 

2-160 

2-240 

2-240 

2-125 

4-75 

4-80 

4-75 

4-125 

4-125 

2-150 

4-125 

4-100 

4-125 

4-90 

2-150 

4-125 

2-52 

2-90 

2-160 

2-160 

4-125 

2-160 

4-75 

4-125 

4-85 

4-75 

2-100 

4-75 

4-125 

2-125 

4-125 

2-125 

4-75 



31 
43 
39 
43 
41 



47 
43 



41 



20 



37 



17 



16 



18 



260 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

RAILWAYS OPERATING MOTOR-CAR TRAINS. PART II. 

Direct-current, 600- volt System. 2Q00-pound Tons. 



Name of railway. 



No. of 
motor 

cars 



Motors 

No. and 

h. p. 



Tons 


Tons 


motor 


per 


car. 


coach. 


28 


16 


32 


20 


32 


20 


31 


20 


30 




31 


19 


25 


22 


39 


25 


i2| 
46/ 


19 


35 


25 


511 

25 r 


40 


16 


14 


32 


25 


32 


18 


18 




40 


19 


48 


34 



Train made up of 



Motor cars. 



Coaches 



Total. 



Central London 

London Electric Railway Co.: 

Metropolitan District 

Baker Street & Waterloo. . . . 

Charing Cross, E. & H 

Great Northern, Pic. & B. . . . 
Great Northern & City 

Great Western, M. & W. L. . . . 

Metropolitan, London 

Waterloo & City 

Mersey Railway 

Lancashire & Yorkshire 
Liverpool-Soathport. 
Liverpool Overhead 

North-Eastern 

Cologne-Bonn 

Berlin Overhead & Underground 

Berlin-Gross Lichterf elde 

Paris-Metropolitan 

Paris-Orleans 

Milan- Varese-Porto Ceresio. . . . 



68 



197 

36 
60 

72 
35 

40 

130 

20 
24 

80 

44 

62 

10 

139 

24 

248 

100 
20 



4-65 




2-150 

2-130 

4-75 

2-125 

2-240 

4-125 \ 

2-175 / 

4-160 



City and South London has fifty-two 464-h.p. locomotives; Metropolitan Railway, London, 
has eleven 800 h.p.; North-Eastern, six 640-h.p.; and Paris-Orleans eleven lOOO-h.p. locomotives. 




Fig. 79. — Rotterdam-Hague-Scheveningen, Motor-car Train. 
TwQ 54-ton motor cars, each with two 175-h.. p., single-phase motors and one 34-ton coach per 

three-car train. 



MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 



261 



RAILWAYS OPERATING MOTOR-CAR TRAINS, 1910. PART III. 
Three-phase System. 2000-pound Tons. 



Name of railway. 


No. of 
motor 
cars. 


Motors 

No. and 

h.p. 


Tons, 

motor 

car. 


Tons 

per 

coach. 


Train made of 


Motor cars. 


Coaches. 


Total. 


St 1 n i^^tn f? - Fin frplliprs? 




2-35 

4-64 

4-250 

4-250 

2-65 

2-150 
4-150 
2-250 














6 

1 
1 

10 


36 

85 

100 




1 
1 

1 


1 




2 


Zossen Tests of 1903 


1 


London-Port Stanley, Ontario, 
1905. 

Valtellina, 1902 


' 


53 
32 

58 


30 
20 
21 


2 
1 
1 


1 

2 
5 


3 
3 




6 




Fig. 80. — Blankanese-Hamburg-Ohlsdorp Motor-car Train. 
Two 69-ton motor cars each with two 200-h. p., single-phase motors. 



262 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 




Fig. 81.- 



-Bavarian State Railway. Murnau-Oberammergau Link Motor car Train. 
Two 100-h. p., single-phase Siemens motors per motor car and coucli. 




Fig. 82.— Vienna-Baden Railway. Motor-car Train. 
Four 60-h. p., single-phase motors per motor car. 



MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 



263 



RAILWAYS OPERATING MOTOR-CAR TRAINS. PART IV. 
Single-phase System. 



Name of railway. 



No. of 
motor 
cars. 



No. 

of 

coaches. 



Motors 

No. & 

h.p. 



Tons 

motor 

car. 



Tons 

per 

coach. 



Trains made of 



Motor. 



Coaches. Total 



New York, New Haven«&H.: 

New York-Stamford. . . . 

New Canaan-Stamford . . 

Harlem River Branch . . 

New York, Westchester & 

Boston. 
Long Island: Sea Cliff Div. 
Baltimore & Annapolis 

Short Line. 
Erie R.R. : Rochester Div. 
Windsor, Essex & Lake S. 
Ft. Wayne & Springfield. . 
Indianapolis & Cincinnati. 
Chicago, Lake Shore & 

South Bend. 

Rock Island Southern 



Colorado & Southern: i 

Denver & Interurban . . . | 

Spokane & Inland Empire . 

Visalia Electric i 

San Francisco, Vallejo and 
Napa Valley. 

Midland Ry., England .... 

London, Brighton & South 

Coast. 

French Southern 

Rotterdam-Hague-Sche- 

veningen. 
Blankanese-Hamburg- 

Ohlsdorf. 

Bernese Alps 

Vienna-Baden Interurban. 
Parma Provincial 



12 

6 

8 

4 

25 

/24 

/6 

\4 



16 

25 

6 

2 
9 

/I 
12 
16 
30 
30 
25 

110 

3 
19 
10 



4-150 

4-125 
4-150 
4-150 

2-50 
4-100 

4-100 

2-100 

4-75 

4-100 

4-125 

4-75 

4-100 

4-125 

4-125 

4-100 

4-75 

4-75 

4-100 

2-150 

2-180 

4-115 

4-175 

4-125 

2-175 

2-200 

4-220 

4-60 

2-70 



/■3 

l2 

1 



28 



40 
50 
56 



41 
45 
55 
60 
61 
54 

69 

59 
40 



34 



19 



Mileage of all single-phase roads is given in "Electric Systems," Chapter IV. 

LITERATURE. 

References on Motor-car Trains. 

Hobart: "Electric Trains," Enghsh practice, Van Nostrand, 1910. 
Hill: Historical Data, S. R. J., May 4, 1901. 



References on Train Control. 

Cooper: Direct-current Motor Control, Elec. Journal, Jan. and March, 1906; Elec. 

Review, April 8, 1905; E. R. J., Oct. 15, 1908, p. 1109. 
Townley: City Traffic and Train Control, Elec. Journal, March, 1907. 
Wilson and Lydall: "Electrical Traction," Vol. II, on Three-phase Motor Control. 



264 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Slichter : On Three-phase Motor Control. Discussion of Great Northern Electrifica- 
tion, A. I. E. E., Nov., 1909. 

Jackson: Single-phase Car Control, Elec. Journal, Sept. and Dec, 1905. 

Krass: Control for Single-phase Trains, and editorial, E. W., Dec. 30, 1909. 

Sprague: A. I. E. E., Aug., 1888; May, 1899; S. R. J., July, 1899; Nov. 3, 1900; May 
4 and Oct. 1, 1904. 

Sprague G. E., Latest Practice, E. R. J., Oct. 15, 1908, p. 1093; G. E. Review, Nov., 
1908. 

Westinghouse, Electric-pneumatic, S. R. J., Jan. 3 and Sept. 26, 1903. 

James: Electro-pneumatic Control, Elec. Journal, April, 1905; Jan., 1906. 

Cooper: Electro-pneumatic Railway Apparatus, Elec. Journal, March, 1907. 

McNulty: Electro-pneumatic Control, Elec. Journal, April, 1905. 

Renshaw: Multiple-unit Control, E. R. J., Oct. 7, 1909; E. T. W., July 9, 1910; 
A. S. & I. Ry. Assoc, Oct., 1909; Elec Review, Oct. 7, 1909. 

Leonard: Multiple-unit Voltage-speed Control, A. I. E. E., June, 1892, p. 566; 
Feb. 18, 1894; Nov. 21, 1902; S. R. J., Nov. 29, 1902. 

Motor-generator Schemes, E. W., Aug. 1, 1908, p. 229. 

Practice on Oerlikon locomotives, S. R. J., Nov. 26, 1904, p. 951; Dec. 8, 1906. 

Cutler-Hammer, Multiple-unit System, S. R. J., Dec. 10, 1904, p. 1050. 

Dick, Kerr & Co. Control, London Elec, April 19, 1907; E. R. J., June 6, 1908. 

Regeneration of Power and Control. 

Henry: Regenerative Control, General, S. R. J., Apr. 7, 1900. 
Cooper: Regeneration of Single-phase Power, A. I. E. E., June, 1907. 
Wilson and Lydall: "Electrical Traction," Vol. I, Chapter 12, describes: 

Johnson-Lundells' Scheme, with double-wound armatures and two commutators. 

Raworth's Scheme using compound-wound direct-current motors. 

References on Motor Cars and Trucks. 

Boston Elevated: S. R. J., Oct. 1, 1904, p. 479. 
Boston & Maine: S. R. J., Dec. 6, 1902, p. 921. 
N. Y., N. H. & H., New York Division: Aspinwall, Elec Journal, Nov., 1906; Nov., 

1909; Trucks, E. R. J., April 14, 1906; Dec 12, 1908, and March 26, 1910; New 

Canaan Division, E. R. J., June 13, 1908; May 15, 1909. 
New York Central: S. R. J., Nov. 4, 1905, p. 837; April 28, 1906. 
Manhattan Elevated: S. R. J., Dec 6, 1902, p. 907; wooden cars, S. R. J., Dec. 6, 1902; 

steel cars, S. R. J., June 4, 1910, p. 1010. 
Interboro Subway: S. R. J., Sept. 20, 1902, p. 382; Aug. 15 and 22, 1903, p. 264; 

Oct. 8, 1904; March 14, 1908; June 18, Oct. 22, 1910. 
Hudson & Manhattan: E. R. J., June 8, 1907, p. 1028; Oct. 2, 1909; June 24, 1910. 
Erie Railroad: S. R. J., July 14, 1906. 

Brooklyn Rapid Transit: S. R. J., Feb. 8, 1908; E. R. J., July 22, 1911. 
Long Island R. R.: S. R. J., Nov. 4, 1905, p. 832; Aug. 11 and 18, 1906. 
Pennsylvania-Long Island: E. R. J., June 17, 1911, p. 1057; June 17, 1911.. 
West Jersey & Seashore: S. R. J., Sept. 1, 1906; Nov. 10, 1906. 
Philadelphia Elevated: S. R. J., Oct. 13, 1906, p. 567. 
Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley: S. R. J., Aug. 4, 1906. 
Ohio & Indiana Interurbans: S. R. J., Oct. 13, 1906, p. 625. 
Chicago, Lake Shore & South Bend: E. R. J., April 10, 1909. 
South Side Elevated, Chicago, E. T. W., Feb. 18, 1911. 



MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 265 

Chicago & Milwaukee, Cafe Parlor Cars: E. R. J., May 15, 1909; Dining Cars, E. R. J., 

Oct. 8, 1910, p. 618. 
Illinois Traction, Sleeping Cars: E. R. J., March 19, 1910, p. 476; Oct. 8, 1910, p. 618; 

Baggage-, E. R. J., Feb. 11, 1911; Interurban Cars, July 8, 1911, p. 76. 
Aurora, Elgin & Chicago, Dining Cars: E. R. J., Oct. 8, 1910, p. 618. 
Twin City Rapid Transit: S. R. J., March 1, 1902, p. 237; Oct. 6, 1906. 
Spokane & Inland: S. R. J., Nov. 10, 1906, p. 951. 

Southern Pacific Trucks, E. R. J., Oct. 22, 1910, March 18, 1911, p. 470. 
Southern Pacific Motor Cars: E. R. J., June 17, 1911. 
Gas-electric Cars: G. E. Review, Feb., 1908; E. W., July 22, 1911, p. 217. 

London Electric Railways, Underground: E. R. J., July, 1910. 
Central London Underground: S. R. J., Oct. 12, 1902, p. 604. 
London, Brighton & South Coast: E. R. J., March 6, 1909; Oct. 12, 1910. 
Mersey Railway: S. R. J., April 4, 1903. 
Great Western, England: Aug. 3, 1907. 
Cologne-Bonn: S. R. J., May 2, 1908. 
Paris-MetropoHtan, S. R. J., Sept. 6, 1904. 
Parma Provincial: E. R. J., June 3, 1911, p. 951. 

Fayet-Chamonix, with flexible coupling between motor and axle: S. R. J., Feb. 7 
1903. 
See single-phase railways, at end of Chapter IV. 



CHAPTER VII. 
CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES. 

Outline. 

Introduction : 

Electric locomotives not a primary power. 

Comparison of steam and electric locomotives. 
Physical Characteristics: 

Capacity. — Drawbar pull, its quality and amount; drawbar pull at high speeds; 

acceleration rates utilized, speed and unification of speed, mileage of locomo 

tives and cars, power developed per ton. 

Other Physical Features. — Mechanical efficiency, simplicity, safety in opera- 
tion, reliability in service. 
Commercial Considerations : 

Traffic and earnings, car movement, terminal capacity, loads, freight haulage 

Maintenance and repairs, wages and time saved. 

Economy of Power. — Utilization, effective and efficient, regeneration of power, 

water powers, economy of fuel, cost of service, earnings from investments. 
Advantages over Motor-car Trains: 

Independent units, use as freight cars, danger to passengers, high voltages in 

motor, design of motors, cost of equipment, cost of maintenance. 
Electric Locomotive Design : 

General review, mistakes in design, center of gravity, mechanical data, weight 

factor, weight analysis. 
Mechanical Transmission of Motive Power: 

Methods outHned, driver diameters, gearless motors, geared motors, cranks 

and side rods, cranks with jackshafts and side rods. 
Cost of Electric Locomotives. 
Literature. 



2G() 



CHAPTER VII. 
CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The application of electric locomotives as a motive power for railroad 
train haulage is now considered. 

Locomotives are only a part of a motive power equipment. — Steam 
locomotives require a repair shop; round house for frequent washing of 
flues; stations distributed along the route, with men and machinery to 
store and handle the coal, and to pump the water to tanks; locomotives to 
haul and distribute coal to these stations; and a loaded coal and water 
tender in each train. Electric locomotives require a repair shop and 
an inspection house. The coal is not hauled with the train, but it is 
carried to one central point, if water power is not used. Electric loco- 
motives also require a central power plant with a complete equipment of 
boilers, steam turbines, alternating-current generators, reliable trans- 
mission and contact lines, and sometimes rotary converter substations. 

Comparison of steam and electric locomotives with reference to their 
physical characteristics, and the financial results therefrom, is advanta- 
geous because on an important railroad division the ultimate limit of the 
economical load is generally prescribed by the power and other qualities 
of the locomotive. Such a comparison indicates the nature and also the 
extent of the improvements which are possible thru the substitution of 
electric for steam traction. 

Steam locomotives are prime movers, that is, energy-generating 
machines as contrasted with electric locomotives which are simply 
energy-collecting machines. This fundamental difference affects operat- 
ing characteristics and features of design. 

Electric locomotives do not yet operate in the best fields, on long 
divisions in dense freight traffic and on long mountain grades. The devel- 
opment in design is not the result of long years of experience, and 
electric locomotives are generally not handled by such well-trained 
motive-power men as found in steam railroad organizations. The 
demonstration of results must be made by argument, in part, because 
in some cases an opportunity has not yet been given to show the full 
measure of the financial advantages. 

See Electric Locomotive History, to 1895, under History. See Speed-torque 
Characteristics of Electric Locomotives under Motors. See Techical Description 
of Electric Locomotives in the next three chapters. 

267 



268 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 

Physical advantages of electric locomotives arise from the inherent 
characteristics of electric motive power. 

Capacity is the most important of these advantages because as already 
explained capacity bears directly upon economy of train operation.' The 
capacity of steam locomotives is too limited. 

"The gage is too narrow for admitting a properly designed boiler upon a large 
locomotive. Many steam locomotives have reached the limit of their capacity 
because the limited gage prevents the boiler being made larger." Angus Sinclair. 

There is a reasonable objection to the heavy and complicated Mallet 
compound, if a simple and efficient design of electric locomotives, un- 
limited by track gage, is available. 

"The men in charge of the railways of this country have struggled for 15 years 
with the greatest problem of our times — how to move a load whose weight increases 
10 per cent, a year with a steam locomotive whose power increases but 2 1/2 per 
cent, a year. The limit of safe, speedy, and reasonable service with existing facilities 
has been reached." James J. Hill to Kansas City Commercial Club, Nov. 16, 1907. 

"Expenses are per train-mile and receipts are per ton-mile," a statement of 
economists, is a valuable one to apply, if sufficient power is provided to move the 
heaviest tonnage per train on the level and up the grades at a reasonable speed. 
The statement is valueless without good speed, since the economical use of the equip- 
ment, the track, and the terminals are vital factors in the cost of transportation; 
further the cost of trainmen's wages, which varies with the train speed, equals the 
cost of fuel for steam locomotives. 

" The traffic which American railroads have to handle is continually increasing. 
But it is difficult for us to increase our facilities in the same ratio. We are up against 
the matter of motive power, and in that we have reached the limit of development 
under steam, so long as the present gage is employed. Widening of the gage would 
increase the capacity of our engines. But it is hardly possible to think of rebuilding 
the railroads. Electricity is the next best thing, and I believe we will come to that 
to increase our power and our train load." E. H. Harriman, October, 1907. 

Three months prior to the death of Mr. Harriman, which occurred September 10, 
1909, it was announced that all suburban trains near Oakland would use electric 
power to give immediate relief to the crowded traffic conditions ; and further that the 
Sacramento Division of the Southern Pacific Company would ultimately be electrified 
to increase the train load and speed. 

Increased locomotive capacity offers immediate relief from congested 
traffic conditions that seem almost hopeless under some existing circum- 
stances. A modern steam locomotive is a splendid piece of apparatus, 
but where conditions of service have grown beyond what can be handled 
efficiently by steam locomotives, the powerful electric locomotive steps 
in and takes up the task, and solves some of the railroad problem^s. 

" Whenever traffic is dense enough, electric traction not only materially decreases 
the operating cost per ton-mile, but either accomplishes this end with a material 
decrease in the motive power equipment, or can handle as much as 50 per cent, more 
traffic than can be handled under the most favorable conditions of steam operation." 
Graham, Third Vice-president, Erie Railroad, 1910. 



CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 269 

Capacity is available with electric traction because the source of 
energy is a large central station, where, for important service and for heavy 
grades, ample power and great temporary overloads may be advantage- 
ously employed. The steam locomotive has its source of power upon its 
back. The electric locomotive has a power station behind it. 

The backbone of railroad business, the freight traffic, now calls for 
heavier trains and faster schedules. Railway managers demand this 
because expenses are per train-mile and per train-hour. This demand 
cannot be met by the steam locomotive, for its capacity and weight per 
ton, per axle, and per foot of wheel base has reached uneconomical and 
undesirable limits. 

Capacity is all-important in railroading, for the public and for the 
investor. Service is demanded, to transport freight and passengers 
safely, rapidly, and in very heavy trains. 

Capacity in the electric locomotive results from: 
Drawbar pull, its quality and amount. 
Drawbar pull at high speed. 
Acceleration rates. 
Speeds utilized. 
Mileage of locomotives. 
Power developed per ton. 

Drawbar pull, its quality and amount, governs the tonnage hauled 
in each train. The matter is therefore of fundamental importance. 
When the weight on the drivers, the motor design, or the steam pressure, 
piston area, leverage, and condition of the rails are fixed, the amount of 
the drawbar pull depends entirely on the character or quality of the effort. 

Reciprocating efforts of a steam locomotive, during each revolution 
of the drivers, cause a variation in tractive effort of from 25 to 45 per 
cent, from the average effort. Circumferential efforts obtained from 
motor armatures are uniform, and there is no tendency of drivers to slip 
at particular points. 

The maximum drawbar pull of the steam locomotive, with its varying 
reciprocating effort, is about 22 per cent., of the weight on drivers, while 
comparable values for the electric locomotive are from 26 to 34 per cent. 
Based on total weights, including the tender, the drawbar pull of electric 
locomotives is from 40 to 50 per cent, greater than steam locomotives. 

Mallet-compound steam freight locomotives weighing 250 tons, with 
158 tons on drivers, ordinarily develop a drawbar pull of about 60,000 
pounds, while electric freight locomotives weighing 115 tons, all on 
drivers, ordinarily develop 60,000 pounds. 

New York Central steam locomotives of the heaviest Altantic type, 
with the tender, weigh 150 tons, of which 47 tons are on two pairs of 
drivers; and those of the heaviest Pacific type weigh 175 tons, of which 



270 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

67 tons are on the three pairs of drivers. Its electric locomotive, of 1909, 
weighs 1 15 tons, of which 71 tons are on four pairs of drivers. The steam 
locomotive weighs 15 to 10 pounds while the electric locomotive weighs 
about 7 pounds per pound of effective drawbar pull. 

Grand Trunk Railway 66-ton locomotives develop 45,000 pounds 
drawbar pull or .34 of the weight, before slipping the drivers. 

Slipping of drivers is easy to avoid with electric traction, yet tractive 
forces cannot be used which are greater than that indicated by the prod- 
uct of the coefficient of tractional friction and the weight on the drivers. 

TORQUE OF MOTORS. 

Direct-current motors when connected in series have double 
their normal drawbar pull per kilowatt input. Compound steam loco- 
motives, when connected for starting conditions as simple engines, 
develop double their normal drawbar pull, but with double the steam 
input which is used in compound. Two electric locomotives when 
coupled at the head of a train are operated on the multiple-unit plan, by 
one engineman; and the control of each locomotive is automatic and 
synchronous, and thus equal tractive effort from each unit is provided. 

Three-phase motors furnish a drawbar pull which in its amount varies 
directly as the square of the impressed line voltage. Thus, with a 10 
per cent, drop in voltage, due to line loss, the drawbar pull is reduced 19 
per cent.; and with a 20 per cent, drop, is reduced 36 per cent. The 
trouble is cumulative since the drawbar pull in starting is a maximum, 
the power factor of the motor is very low, a heavy volt-ampere input 
is required for the work, and the heavy current produces excessive line 
drop. Transformer substations on 3500-volt, three-phase railroads must 
be placed 3 to 5 miles apart to prevent a large line loss. The drawbar 
pull is low because the magnetic field strength is lowered by design to 
reduce the steel losses and the magnetic leakage. The drawbar pull is 
increased by decreasing the air gap, or by inserting wasteful resistance in 
the rotor in starting. 

Single-phase series motors produce a pulsating effort. 

" The torque of the motor pulsates at twice the circuit frequency and the electrical 
torque varies from its maximum value to zero and may even assume a negative value 
if the field flux is not in time-phase with the armature current. This condition does 
not exist with reference to the mechanical torque which reaches the drivers, because 
of the inertia and of the elasticity of the medium between the electrical and mechani- 
cal torque. When the drivers are stationary the torque is transmitted thru springs 
at a certain definite value. In order that the mechanical torque may reach zero 
fifty times per second, it would be necessary for the field armature structures to be 
returned by the springs to the zero torque an equal number of times in this period. 
The inertia of the moving armature and the elasticity of the springs causes a vibra- 



CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 271 

tion thru very narrow limits, and the torque which reaches the drivers and which 
fluctuates with the electrical torque will be almost constant at a value equal to about 
one-half of the maximum electrical torque. Observations show that the mechanical 
torque exerted varies only slightly, and that the slipping of the drivers is almost 
impossible." St. Ry. Journ., April 14, 1906, p. 591. 

Methods used for smoothing out the pulsating torque or drawbar pull of single- 
phase motors are to employ flexible spring couplings between the armature shaft and 
the axle. In the 15-cycle, 125-ton locomotive built by the General Electric Company 
in 1909 (see Elec. Ry. Journ., May 8, 1909), a series of leaf springs, arranged radially 
around the armature shaft, provides a flexible coupling which is interposed between 
the armature shaft and the crank-shaft. In the New Haven gearless type, 25-cycle 
passenger locomotives and motor cars, each end of the quill-mounted armature shaft 
is provided with 6 pins which connect to the drivers thru helical springs. In the New 
Haven geared type freight locomotives, pinions are placed at the ends of the armature 
shaft and they mesh into gears which are mounted on a quill surrounding the axl,e, 
and each end of the quills is provided with 6 driving arms and helical springs to equal- 
ize the torque. Incidentally, but of greatest importance, the transmission of strains 
and shocks from the track to the motors is avoided. In the New Haven crank-type 
freight locomotive, heavy helical compression springs are interposed between the 
split spider of a large radius armature and the spider mounted on the motor shaft. 

Shouldering or nosing seldom exists in electric locomotives. The 
drawbar pull is forward and effective, not an alternating right and left 
thrust. Therefore the loosening of spikes, the maintenance of the rail 
gage and alignment, and the care of the roadbed are decreased. Oscilla- 
tions, caused by the coned surface of driver treads, may not be avoided, 
but are easily dampened by side springs, and are not destructive. 

Temperatures in winter do not decrease the drawbar pull of electric 
locomotives and delay the service. Steam locomotives have less tractive 
effort in winter on account of a decrease in the mean-effective steam 
pressure, condensation on the cylinder walls and piston rods, radiation 
of heat from boilers, chilled furnaces, etc. Rating Tables were given 
under ''Operating Characteristics of Steam Locomotives," page 64. 

Electric locomotive drawbar pull and speed are increased by cold 
and windy weather, at the time when the increased friction requires 
greater power to haul the train. On many roads this increased capacity 
has been found to be of great value and ''the aggregate delay has been 
less, a fact particularly noticeable in times of snow storms." Sprague. 

Drawbar pull is effective in hauling the cars, because the mechanical 
friction of electric locomotives is less, particularly so in high-speed 
service; because the higher tractive effort requires less dead weight; 
and because the 30- to 60-ton coal and water tender are eliminated. 

For example, in the New York Central electric zone, the common 
electric passenger locomotive weighs 100 to 115 tons; it hauls the same 
train which, outside of the electric zone, is hauled by a 171-ton steam 
locomotive. To show the saving in non-revenue-bearing ton-mileage, 
each steam locomotive averaged 25,620 ton-miles monthly of which 49 



272 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



per cent, was useful car-ton-miles, while each electric locomotive averaged 
33,210 ton-miles monthly, of which 65 per cent, was useful car-ton-miles. 
The total saving in weight is reported as 11 per cent. Note also: 



STEAM AND ELECTRIC TRAIN WEIGHTS, NEW YORK CENTRAL. 

APRIL, 1905. 



No. of 
coaches. 


Tons for 
coaches. 


Tons for 
elec. loco. 


Tons for 
steam loco. 


Tons for 
train. 


Wt. of motive power 
per cent, of total. 


6 


307 
256 

413 
345 

123 


100 




407 
437 

513 
516 

393 


24 . 5 for electric. 


6 


171 


40 . 4 for steam. 


8 


100 


19.5 for electric. 


8 


171 



33 3 for steam. 


8 





68 . 7 for electric. 



This comparison between electric-locomotive- and steam-locomotive- 
hauled trains is favorable to the former; and the last comparison, with 
motor-car trains, is even more favorable to the electric train. 

Drawbar pull is well sustained at high speed in electric locomo- 
tives. In steam locomotives it falls off rapidly as the speed increases 
because the fixed power of the boiler requires a reduction in the mean- 
effective steam pressure as the number of revolutions increases. 

Drawbar pull of series-wound alternating-current and direct-current 
electric motors decreases much more rapidly than the speed increases 
and, as a result, high speeds are often accompanied by reduced work. 
Series motors must therefore have ample continuous capacity, also 
means for speed regulation, by field or potential variation; and the 
electric locomotive must be sufficiently heavy, to compare favorably 
with a steam locomotive having a large heating surface. 

Statements are often made which place the drawbar pull of steam 
locomotives in a too unfavorable light. For example, one ordinary 
Mallet compound, with 150 tons on drivers and 5000 square feet of heat- 
ing surface, rated 2150 h. p., shows a higher continuous drawbar pull at 
15 miles per hour than three Michigan Central locomotives, each having 
100 tons on drivers, and a continuous rating of 500 h. p. on forced draft. 



CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 273 



DRAWBAR PULL OF STEAM AND ELECTRIC FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVES. 



i 
1 
Locomotive. Electric. 


Electric. 


Electric. 


Electric. 


Steam. 


Steam. 


Company. 


Michigan 
Central. 


Great 
Northern. 


Grand 
Trunk. 


New 
Haven. 


Great 
Northern. 


Great 
Northern. 


Type or Direct 
kind. current. 


Three 
phase. 


One 
phase. 


One 
phase. 


Mallet 
compound. 


Consolida. 
simple. 


H.p 

Tons, total. 

on drivers 
D.B.pull,lbs: 

starting. 
5 m.p.h.. 

10 m.p.h.. 

11 m.p.h. . 

12 m.p.h.. 

13 m.p.h.. 

14 m.p.h.. 

15 m.p.h. . 

16 m.p.h.. 

17 m.p.h.. 

18 m.p.h.. 
20 m.p.h.. 


500 
100 
100 

50,000 

50,000 

50,000 

48,000 

33,000 

24,000 

18,700 

14,500 

10,500 

9,500 

7,200 

5,000 


1500 
115 
115 

52,000 
52,000 
52,000 
52,000 
52,000 
52,000 
52,000 
47,500 



1140 
132 
132 

50,000 
50,000 
50,000 
50,000 
45,000 
40,000 
32,500 
29,500 
24,000 
22,000 
19,000 
16,000 


1120 

135 

96 

51,000 
50,000 
48,000 


2150 
252 
158 

60,000 
55,000 
50,500 


1450 
156 

108 

50,000 
44,000 
39,000 


45,600 
















40,000 
37,600 
35,500 
33,600 
29,600 


44,500 


33,300 














38,000 


26,500 






Michigan Central, Great Northern, Grand Trunk, and New Haven electric loco- 
motives were designed for mixed passenger and freight service. Ordinary conditions 
are considered, and continuous horse power. 



18 



274 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

DRAWBAR PULL OF STEAM AND ELECTRIC PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVES. 



Locomotive 


Steam 


Steam 


Electric 


Electric 


Electric 


Electric 


Company. 


Penn- 


New York 


New York 


Simplon 


New 


Penn- 


sylvania 


Central. 


Central. 


Tunnel. 


Haven. 


sylvania. 


Number 


5266 


2797 


3401 


367 


041 


3977 


Type or 


Atlantic 


Pacific 


Direct 


Three 


One 


Direct 


kind 


simple. 


Simple. 


current. 


phase. 


phase. 


current. 


H. p., cont. . . 


1,000 


1570 


1166 


1365 


800 


800 


Tons, total 


161 


171 


115 


76 


102 


157 


on drivers. 


55 


71 


71 


76 


77 


100 


D.B. pull, lbs.: 














starting 


22,000 


33,500 


33,500 


26,400 . 


19,200 


69,300 


10 m.p.h.. . 

15 m.p.h.. . 

16 m.p.h.. . 
20 m.p.h.. . 
25 m.p.h.. . 


20,000 


33,500 


35,000 


26,400 






18,500 
18,000 
16,000 


32,000 


35,000 


26,400 




31,000 


35,000 


21,200 


1 


30,000 


35,000 


21,200 


. - 

21,000 




• 13,500 


24,000 


35,000 


18,050 


17,000 


60,000 


30 m.p.h. . . 


12,000 


19,500 


35,000 


18,050 


13,500 


28,000 


33 m.p.h.. . 
35 m.p.h.. . 


11,000 
10,500 




34,000 
32,000 


12,350 
12,350 


12,000 
11,000 


21,000 
44,500 


16,000 


40 m.p.h. . . 


9,000 


14,000 


20,500 


12,350 


9,000 


29,500 


45 m.p.h.. . 


8,300 


12,600 


13,000 


9,470 


7,400 


21,000 


60 m.p.h. . . 


6,200 


10,000 


6,000 





4,300 


10,000 



ACCELERATION RATES. 

Acceleration rates commonly used with electric trains are about 
twice as high as those used for steam trains, and the character of the 
tractive effort is uniform, so that the average is raised. The speed- 
torque characteristics of electric locomotives, noted in the last table, show 
that high acceleration rates can be well maintained. Direct-current 
locomotives have a high tractive effort available for acceleration up one 
half of the rated speed; single-phase locomotive drawbar pull falls off 
somewhat faster; but three-phase locomotives have a small decrease in 
drawbar pull and acceleration rate with its lower speeds. In freight 
and passenger service with few stops, a high acceleration rate is not an 
important matter, but good suburban service demands high accelerating 
rates in order to attain full speed in the minimum time, to use the lowest 
maximum speed for a given schedule speed, to increase the coasting and 
to reduce the loss in braking. See ''Motor-car Trains." Complete data 
on acceleration rates are given under "Power Required for Trains.'' 



CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 275 

SPEED AND ITS UNIFICATION. 

Speeds of electric locomotives may be high, both maximum and 
schedule speed, for the following reasons, a to e: 

a. Motion is rotary, not reciprocating; it is balanced, not unbalanced. 
The hammer blow of the counterbalance is eliminated. High speeds do 
not rack the locomotive and destroy the roadbed. The maximum speed 
may be increased with safety on weak roadbeds, trestles, and bridges, 
because of the absence of the unbalanced efforts, and because of the 
decreased weight on the drivers. 

b. Center of gravity is lower and thus the safety of movement is 
increased, provided that (1) weights and motors are distributed, (2) 
weights are spring-mounted, and (3) two- or four-wheeled guiding 
trucks are used for high-speed work. On the other hand, a center of 
gravity, 8 to 10 feet above the 4.71-foot gage track, as used on high- 
speed steam locomotives, seems to be dangerous. (See data on center 
of gravity in this chapter under Electric Locomotive Design.) 

c. Acceleration rates are higher by design, as noted. 

d. Central stations are used to supply power to the motors. The 
speed of the train can be maintained with heavy loads. High drawbar 
pull at high speeds as used with electric power is a valuable asset. 

e. Unification of train speeds becomes possible with electrically 
hauled freight and passenger trains. Motors which will run at a much 
more uniform speed, regardless of the grades and load, can be used with 
economy. Unification of train speed improves the efficiency and the 
safety of operation and the capacity of the track. The complication 
from non-uniformity of speed among the various trains over the same 
tracks is apparent, especially so on well-loaded trunk lines with varying 
train weights and service. Uniform speed is not a characteristic of 
steam locomotives: a 1600-ton train is hauled at 25 to 28 m. p. h. on the 
level, at 10 to 12 m. p. h. on 1.0 per cent, grade, and at 5 to 7 m. p. h. 
on the 2.0 per cent, grade. 

Electric locomotives are able to maintain the speed with varying 
drawbar pull independent of the load or grade, up to the overload limits 
of the motors. A three-phase locomotive speed is nearly uniform, inde- 
pendent of the load or grades; the single-phase locomotive speed is 
maintained in a measure as the load increases by simply raising the trans- 
former voltage delivered to the motor; and the direct-current locomotive 
speed is maintained, to some extent, by varying the field of the motor. 
Unification of speeds simply requires ample motor capacity, rather than 
motor characteristics. 

The advantages of ample motor capacity, to produce a much more 
uniform speed, are apparent. One speed for all trains is not practical, 



276 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

and the same speed for up-grade and down-grade is most undesirable 
from a commercial standpoint, yet greater uniformity of speed among 
the several trains on a division makes for simplicity of train dispatching 
and for the economical movement of heavy traffic on a single-track road. 

Mileage of Locomotives is increased by: 

Ample capacity in the motor and in the central station. 

Rapid acceleration whenever it is practical. 

Drawbar pull to maintain the speed of heavier trains. 

Higher maximum and schedule speeds. 

Fewer delays, from greater simplicity. 

Quicker movements at terminals and switching yards. 

Less time in repair shops and inspection sheds. 

Time saved in washing out and cleaning boilers. 

Time saved in coaling, watering, and turning. 

Availability for service with minimum delay. 

Unification of train speeds. 

Increased motor capacity in windy, storm}^, and cold weather. 

"New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad electric locomotives on the New 
York-Stamford electric zone cover an average of 210 miles per day, while statistics on 
115 steam locomotives on the same inter-division service showed an average of 158 
miles." Murray, March, 1909. 

New York Central electric locomotives make fully 25 per cent, greater daily 
mileage than steam. Wilgus, A. S. C. E., March, 1908. 

Valtellina Railway records show the annual mileage of steam locomotives is 
17,213 and the annual mileage of electric locomotives is 35,120. "One electric loco- 
motive is actually doing the work of two steam locomotives of the same capacity." 
Valatin. 

Mileage of cars in freight service is increased by the use of electric traction. 
Freight cars on steam roads average but 24 miles per day, or 10 m. p. h. when moving. 
Steam locomotives in freight service, on account of the operating and traffic conditions, 
make less than 100 miles per day; but these limitations do not apply with equal force 
to the electric locomotives, and greater mileage per month is realized. The reason is 
not entirely on account of the ability to raise the schedule speed, for example from 
10 m. p. h. to 17 m.p.h. ; the improvement is cumulative; because overtaking trains and 
opposing trains do not compel the slow freight trains to take the sidings, and wait for 
long periods. The dispatcher would have minimum trouble and avoid many delays 
if all speeds were more nearly uniform. The raising of the freight train speeds, and 
the surety that the electric locomotives will be on time, make a radical reduction in 
the time wasted on sidings and increase the monthly mileage per locomotive. 

Greater locomotive and car mileage per day raises the efficiency of the investment 
of the railroad in rolling stock, main tracks, and terminals, 

POWER DEVELOPED PER TON. 

The capacity, in horse power per ton, of electric locomotives is twice 
as great as with steam locomotives. This is proved by comparing the 
tables on "Weight Factor of Electric Locomotives," given later, with 
the table, page 56, Chapter II, on " Horse Power per Ton of Steam Loco- 
motives." The weight of electric trains may thus be doubled without 



CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 277 

increasing the unit stresses from the locomotives on the bridges and rail- 
way structures. • The greater horse power per ton results from: 

a. Absence of coal and water tender, 25 to 30 per cent, of total. 

b. Absence of furnace and boiler. 

c. Greater proportion of weight on the drivers. (Many steam locomotives use a 
pair of wheels to support the fire box.) 

d. Greater tractive effort per ton on drivers. 

e . Electric motor designs, which show great power per ton. Electric locomo 
tives are designed for the average work and they may be safely overloaded 50 per 
cent, for hours, or 100 per cent, temporarily. Steam locomotives are designed for 
the maximum work, and the limit of their capacity is in the boiler. The limit for the 
electric motor is the heating of the insulation on wires, and this requires several hours. 
Intermittent service allows cooling, and the capacity is raised in windy, cold weather. 

ADDITIONAL PHYSICAL FEATURES. 

Advantages of the electric locomotive, as a machine, with reference 
to smoke, noise, dirt, fire, gas, mechanical efficiency, simplicity, safety 
and reliability, w^ere detailed in Chapter III. 

Increased capacity and good operating features may be obtained by 
electrification; but capacity may also be gained by grade reduction, 
tunnels, double tracking, elimination of curves, track elevation, block- 
signals, more track at terminals, more cars, and heavier steam locomotives. 
A broad-gage railroad management studies the initial cost, operating 
features, and expenses of all the physical improvements which are possible 
and asks for that combination which will give the greatest net return 
from any added investment. 

COMMERCIAL CONSIDERATIONS. 

The use of electric locomotives results in important commercial 
advantages, which are worthy of consideration. 

1. Traffic and earnings are increased as a result of ample capacity and superior 
power service. Items 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 were detailed in Chapter III. 

2. Car movement is facilitated to a very great extent. 

3. Terminal capacity is increased — a great advantage. 

4. Heavier loads are hauled, and at good speed. 

5. Freight-train haulage becomes practical. 

6. Maintenance and repairs are decreased. 

7. Wages and time are saved. 

8. Utilization of power is effective and efficient. 

9. Regeneration of power is practical. 

10. Water power can often be utilized. 

11. Economy of fuel is obtained. 

12. Cost of service is decreased. 

13. Earnings from investments are enhanced. 



278 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

MAINTENANCE AND REPAIRS. 

Maintenance is decreased, for the reasons given below : 

a. Simplicity of electric motive power equipment and the smaller 
amount of moving apparatus reduce the wear and tear. The material 
and labor required for repairs is reduced to two-thirds of that for steam 
locomotives. 

b. Depreciation is slow as a result of simplicity. In America about 
450 electric locomotives are now in service, and the indications for the 
first 10 to 15 years' service are clear. The steam locomotive is short lived, 
and, after being sent to the back-shop about five times, to rebuild the 
boiler and furnace, the good metal and machine work are worn out; 
and after the engine has been in operation at real hard work for 10 
years, it becomes a drag on the service. Depreciation of central station 
boilers, the steam or hydraulic turbines, and the electric locomotives, 
when combined, is relatively small per h. p. hour delivered or per ton- 
miles hauled. 

c. Mechanical friction of electric motors, motor cars, and locomotives 
is relatively low, because of the reduced number of moving elements, less 
frictional resistance, and a 50 per cent, reduction in the dead weight. 

d. Cleaning and inspection work is decreased. Electric locomotives 
and motor cars are inspected after each 1200- to 1500-mile run, or about 
every 8 days; the equipments are blown out with compressed air, 
are cleaned, inspected, gaged, and oiled; and without further delay are 
ready for service. The great saving in round-house labor is apparent. 
Steam locomotives, after each day's run of about 150 miles, are cooled, 
blown off, washed out, and cleaned; then coaled, watered, and fired up, 
in addition to the inspection. 

e. Coal and water tenders, which must be hauled by steam loco- 
motives, add to the cost of maintenance and repairs, but this is avoided 
with electric traction. The numerous water-pumping plants, the coal 
supply sheds, and the fuel and labor necessary to maintain them, and to 
supply the tenders, are dispensed with, and this work is concentrated 
at the central station. 

f. Fewer locomotives are used with electric traction. Data from 
the installations made, and those under way on a larger scale, indicate 
clearly that three electric locomotives will replace five steam locomotives 
because the former have larger capacity, lower weight per h. p. developed, 
greater daily mileage, and fewer units in the repair shops. 

The cost of maintenance and repairs is now considered. 

Stillwell states: "The maintenance and upkeep of electric loco- 
motives may be placed at 2 1/2 per cent, per annum, while the rate for 
steam locomotives is 20 per cent, per annum." 



CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 



279 



Van Alstyne, Vice-president of the American Locomotive Company, 
stated to the Northwest Railway Club : " After a careful consideration, I 
believe that the repairs and maintenance on electric locomotives could 
not exceed one-half of those on steam locomotives." 

Pomeroy gives this comparison of maintenance costs: 



Locomotive. 



Steam. 



Electric. 



Boiler 

Running gear 

Machinery 

Lagging and painting. . 

Smoke box 

Coal and water tender. 
Total .. 



23% 


0% 


20 


20 


30 


15 


12 


5 


5 





13 





100 


40 



New York Central saved 20 per cent, net, in repairs and fixed charges. 
The average cost of interest, depreciation, repairs, inspection, and hand- 
ling was about $4750 per year for steam locomotives and $3800 per year 
for electric locomotives, according to Wilgus. 

New Haven steam locomotive records per locomotive-mile are: 
Passenger locomotive maintenance, $.017; repairs, $.039; total, $.056. 
Freight locomotives, maintenance, .014; repairs, .067; total, .081. 
Its electric locomotive maintenance and repairs have been high because 
the installation, made in 1907, was of a radical and untried character; 
but the maintenance and repair expense is now decreasing rapidly. 

Grand Trunk Railway reports in effect that the maintenance cost 
for steam locomotives at the Port Huron tunnel, where the service is 
heavy and severe, averaged 13.6 cents per locomotive-mile in 1908; 
while that of the electric locomotive was 4.3 cents per locomotive-mile. 
Maintenance and repairs for 1909 were 55 per cent, of the steam cost. 

Maintenance and repair records of locomotives are not easily obtained. 
Accounts show a general uniformity, but rules of each railroad govern. 
Cost depends upon the kind of water used, the class of enginemen 
employed, the thoroness and efficiency of the shop work, which in turn 
may be affected by labor troubles; the condition of the roadbed, the train 
loading, the policy of the company regarding improvements, and safety 
in train service. After a wreck, locomotive repairs may be charged to 
accidents. Renewals of old locomotives may be charged to equipment. 

Passenger locomotives in steam service require general repairs about 
every 100,000 miles; freight locomotives, every 70,000 miles; yet this 
depends on the service, not on the miles. Records should extend over 
many years and, should be fair, should be based on the ton-miles hauled. 



280 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR COSTS PER ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE MILE. 

TABLE I. 



Name of railroad. 


Cost per 
mile; cents. 


Authorities and reference 
quoted. 


Buffalo & Lockport 

Baltimore & Ohio 


0.79 
6.00 
0.60 
1.60 
1.26 
4.60 
5.00 
7.46 
4.30 
1.50 
2.24 
2.30 
5.00 
1.54 
1.38 
1.80 


Stillwell, A.I.E.E., Jan. 1907, p. 62. 

Muhlfield, S.R.J., Feb. 24, 1906, p. 307. 

G.E. advertisement. 

G.E., first 50,000-mile test. 

G.E., 100,000-mile test. 

Interstate Commerce report, 1908. 

A.I.E.E., Jan. 25, 1907, p. 150. 

1909 records by Kirker. 

1908 Elec. Review, March 6, 1909. 

Bevoise. 

1910, approximate. 

Dubois, S.R.J., May 20, 1905. 

Dubois, S.R.J., May 20, 1905. 

Dubois, S.R.J., May 20, 1905. 

Cserhati, S.R.J., Aug. 26, 1905, p. 303. 

Stillwell, A.I.E.E. Jan. 1907, p. 62. 


St. Louis & Suburban 

New York Central 


New York, New Haven & H. 
Grand Trunk . . 


Hoboken Shore 

Illinois Traction 


Paris-C)rleans 


Paris- Versailles 


Paris-Metropolitan 

Valtelhna 





TABLE II. 



Name of railroad. 


No. 

of 

locos. 


Locomotive 

repairs and 

renewals. 


Annual 

locomotive 

mileage. 


Cost per 
mile; 
cents. 


Data 

for 

year. 


Baltimore & Ohio 


10 
21 
35 

10 
41 
47 

12 
41 

47 
4 


$16,475 
27,660 

45,888 

7,775 

256,704 

31,319 


200 000 

500,000 

1,000,000 

170,000 
2,000,000 
1,000,000 

180,000 

2,136,500 

1,100,000 

50,150 


8.2 
5.5 
4.6 

4.5 

12.8 

3.1 


1908 


New York, New Haven & H. 
New York Central 


1908 
1908 


Baltimore & Ohio 


1909 


New York, New Haven & H. 
New York Central .... 


1909 
1909 


Baltimore & Ohio 


1910 


New York, New Haven & H. 
New York Central 


140,983 


6.6 


1910 
1910 


Great Northern 


30,534 


5.00 


1910 







Repair and renewal data are from Interstate Commerce Commission Report for 
1908, p. 181; for 1909, p. 137; annual reports of railroad companies, and other sources. 
See maintenance data for Steam Locomotives, and for Motor-car Trains. 



CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 281 

Some railroads believe in wearing locomotives out, as fast as possible, 
in hauling trains, and few extra locomotives are kept in service; loco- 
motives are continually replaced with more modern machines. This plan 
gives better results than to operate locomotives which are 15 years old. 

In studying maintenance cost, care should be taken to get the basis 
of the book-keeping and all comparable data on service. Complete in- 
formation is seldom obtained. 

WAGES. 

Wages and time are saved with electric service. 

Locomotive and roundhouse work is decreased. 

Rate of wages paid is reduced. 

Firemen are not required. 

Automatic devices and meters increase safety. 

Locomotive mileage is greater; shopping is less. 

Heavier trains require less labor per mile run. 

Double heading does not require duplication of men. 

Time is utilized efficiently in actual running. 

Service is more continuous with electric locomotives. 

Less work and time are required for efficient switching. 

Labor is more efficient, and is of a better class. 

Speed of freight trains on grades is higher. 

These points have been detailed in Chapter III, under the heading, 
'^ Decreased Operating Expenses — Wages." 

Grand Trunk Railway records show a saving, following the St. Clair 
tunnel electrification, of 15 and 23 per cent, in the wages paid to locomo- 
tive crews and train crews respectively. 

New York Central uses one motorman for a 6- to 10-car multiple-unit 
train in place of an engineman and a fireman on a steam locomotive. 

Metropolitan and Metropolitan District Railway, London, reduced 
the wages of drivers 20 to 25 per cent, with the advent of electric traction. 

Lancashire and Yorkshire electric express trains have only two 
trainmen, one driver and one conductor; while the heavier local trains 
require one driver, one conductor, and one rear man. 

In England, Germany, and France the same general fact is noted: 
Electric train service requires less wages per train mile. 

ECONOMY OF POWER. 

Utilization of the power produced at the central station is effective 
and efficient when electric locomotives are used, as explained in Chapter 
III, under "Decreased Operating Expenses." 

Regeneration of power which effects an economy in operation is con- 
sidered under "Power Required for Trains." 

Water powers can be used. See "Water Power Plants." 



282 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

ECONOMY OF FUEL. 

Steam locomotives burn approximately the following coal per 1000 
ton-miles: Switching, 1300; suburban, 500; ordinary passenger, 250; 
ordinary freight, 150. The pounds of coal per i. h. p. hr. approximate: 
Suburban, 6.75; ordinary passenger, 4.0; ordinary freight locomotives, 
3.0; and modern steam power plants, 2.0 pounds. See page 82. 

Electric traction, with energy supplied from a central station, is now 
compared with the steam locomotive: 

FUEL SAVING AVITH ELECTRIC TRACTION. 

Fuel of cheaper grades, saves 30 to 10% 

Furnace and boiler economy 35 to 30 

Radiation and condensation 20 to 10 

Cylinder or steam economy 30 to 25 

Friction of mechanism 12 to 6 

Total saving (not the sum), ' 60 

Generator and transformer loss 5 to 8 

Transmission and contact line 2 to 8 

Transformation 3 to 6 

Motor and control 10 to 6 

Total loss approximates 25 

Net saving in fuel (1.00 -.60) x 1.25= 50 

The fuel savings include those due to stoker in furnace, water-tube 
boilers, superheaters, feed water heater, less radiation, less stand-by and 
banked-fire losses, gain at poppet valves, greater expansion of steam in 
turbines, condensing operation, and power production on a large scale. 

Economy of fuel, which is naturally expected with electric traction, 
was considered in Chapter III under ^^ Decreased Operating Expense." 

Efficiency of simple steam locomotives was explained in Chapter II. 
Efficiency is lowest with the late cut-off required on grades, and in start- 
ing or accelerating a train. The fuel consumed by steam locomotives 
while standing idle, or waiting at a meeting point, is a large percentage 
of the total. Each locomotive, without doing any useful work, may 
burn 300 to 800 pounds of coal per hour or 15 to 25 tons per month. 
Almost all of this is saved in electric traction. 

The superior efficiency of a modern steam power plant is evident. 
Power can ordinarily be generated, delivered, and applied in a wholesale 
manner more effectively than by an individual steam locomotive. 
Modern power plants employ high-grade engineers to manage the fur- 
naces and stokers and to burn cheapest fuels, under clean water-tube 
boilers. Efficient steam turbines, minimum internal losses, ample water 
for condensation, feed-water heaters, and econom'.sers are utiHzed. 
Losses in electric generators, lines, and transformers are compensated by 
the decreased friction and the lighter weight of the electric locomotive. 



CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 



283 



The saving of 50 per cent, of the cost of fuel is realized. Fuel cost is 
11 per cent, of the operating expenses of steam railroads and is thus an 
item affecting economical transportation. 

^J'ew York Central Railroad furnishes data on fuel saving, of interest. 

''For road tests, steam locomotives require 1.22 pounds of coal per 
car-ton-mile; electric locomotives, after allowing for power plant charges 
and expenses at 2.6 cents per kw. hr., save 28 per cent, of the fuel item." 
It formerly paid for coal, used on steam locomotives in terminal service, 
$5.00 per long ton, and in road service, $3.50; while at its Mt. Morris 
power station, coal with equal B.t.u. costs less than $3.05 per ton. 

Pennsylvania Railroad's electric power station in Long Island City 
burns low-grade screenings efficiently on modern stokers. 

Grand Trunk Railway, for its Port Huron tunnel, formerly used 
anthracite coal under its steam locomotives. These results are reported: 

" The fuel bill for steam locomotives during the last six months in steam service 
averaged $4,956 a month. The fuel bill for the first six months of electric service 
averaged $1,152.60 a month. ' Hard coal, costing $6 a ton, was used on the steam 
locomotives. Bituminous coal, costing $2 per ton, is used in the power station." 
Kirker, in Elec. Review, March 6, 1909, p. 423. The 1909 records, with cheaper 
grades of coal, give the fuel cost as 39 per cent, of that under steam operation. 

South Side Elevated Railroad, Chicago, in 1898 operated modern Baldwin com- 
pound locomotives, weighing 28 tons, to haul 5-car trains. The road was electrified 
and the saving in coal was $500 per day. 

Manhattan Elevated Railroad under most favorable conditions with its steam 
locomotives used 1 pound of coal to produce 2.23 ton-miles, or 1.50 ton-miles when the 
weight of the cars only was considered. Four years later, when electricity was used 
exclusively, 1 pound of coal burned at the power house produced 3.83 ton-miles. 
Therefore the ratio of ton-mileage per pound of coal in favor of electric operation was 
2.57 to 1; or, since under electrical operation the average speed was 2 m.p.h. greater, 
the ratio of ton-mileage per pound of coal was 3 to 1. This saving in coal consump- 
tion is 1,000,000 tons of coal per annum. (Stillwell.) 

New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad tests, as reported by Murray, 
electrical engineer, to A. I. E. E., Jan. 25, 1907, p. 147, show the coal and the ton- 
miles required during 18 months for the run between New York and New Haven, in 
steam railroad service, were as follows: 



Kind cf railioad service. 


Lb. of coal 

per average 

i.h.p. hr. 


Lb. of coal 

per revenue 

ton-mile. 


Average 

tons per 

train. 


Passenger-express 

Passenger-express-local .... 
Freight service 


4.06 to 4.37 
4.68 to 4.61 
not taken 


0.194 
0.335 
0.169 


527 
314 , 
931 









Tests were made in August when track and temperature favored good results. 
Murray estimated, in January, 1907, that the saving of coal with electric traction 



284 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

would be 40 per cent. Two years later he wrote : " By far the most interesting feature 
of the investigation, which has been continued, is now. to find that, by actual opera- 
tion, the saving in coal for electric passenger operation, as against steam, for the same 
service, is just 50 per cent." 

Lancashire & Yorkshire Railway, of England, J. A. F. Aspinwall, General 
Manager, has recently reported that on its Liverpool-Southport branch, 37 miles, 
which now uses electric traction, the saving in coal per train-mile is 48 per cent. 

" Mersey Tunnel Railway of England, with steam traction, required 1 ton of coal 
costing $4.00 per ton to move 1 ton of train load 2.21 miles at 17.75 miles per hour; 
while with electric traction, it required 1 ton of coal costing only $2.18 per ton to 
move 1 ton of train load 2.29 miles at an average speed of 22.25 miles per hour." 
The net saving was 55 per cent. J. Shaw, B. I. C. E., November, 1909. I 

Cost of service per ton-mile is reduced because electric locomotive 
units haul faster and heavier trains in a given time; save in fuel, labor, 
and maintenance; utilize the cheapest coal, or water powers; decrease 
the non-revenue-bearing ton-miles of locomotives; and utilize the energy 
produced to great advantage, in common service or on mountain grades. 

Earnings from investments are enhanced when the tracks, equipment, 
and rolling stock are used efficiently; when more work is done in a given 
time; and when the ton-mileage is increased by an efficient motive power. 
The increased load, the increased speed, the shorter delays, and the 
greater mileage of locomotives and cars, also save in investments 
which would otherwise be required in an ordinary single-track road, at 
bridges, tunnels, grades, and congested terminals. 

An increased investment is required with electric traction; but it is 
evident that if twice the horse power can be utilized efficiently on a given 
length of line, to double the work or the receipts from the same track, 
and if this can be done with an extra investment of a small part of the 
total cost of the road, the business proposition is worth consideration. 

Increased efficiency and capacity, and other physical advantages of 
electric traction, result in a financial advantage; otherwise electric power 
should never receive consideration for important railway service. 

ADVANTAGES OF LOCOMOTIVES OVER MOTOR-CAR TRAINS. 

The electric locomotive has some advantages in train haulage not 
possessed by motor cars. 

Independent units are obtained by the use of locomotives. The 
division of the equipment between the locomot ves and the coaches 
facilitates different classes of care and inspection. Locomotive motors, 
in heavy service, after running several hours on an extreme overload, 
may be cooled by forced draft; or another locomotive may be utilized. 
With motor-car trains this is not so practical. 

Locomotives are used as freight cars by the Paris-Orleans Railway, 
by the North-Eastern of England, and by American interurban roads. 



CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 285 

Such locomotives, of the baggage-car type, weighing 20 to 60 tons, are 
loaded with express, mail, merchandise, perishable goods, etc., and 
haul freight cars or passenger coaches. 

Locomotives are needed for thru passenger and freight-car haulage. 

Danger to passengers is decreased when the motors are placed on the 
locomotive only. It is more difficult to avoid some of the dangers of an 
electric shock, from leakage, fire, or short circuit, whenever high voltages 
required in railroading pass thru steel conduit wiring under each electric 
car of the train. In case of a head-end collision, the danger is decreased 
when a locomotive, or a steel baggage motor car, is at the head of a train. 

High voltages can be used on the field windings. Three-phase, 
3000-volt locomotive motors do not require a step-down transformer, 
and the locomotive weight is greatly reduced. Leonard's motor- 
generator locomotive plan, which embraces a high-voltage, single-phase, 
60-, 25-, or 15-cycle, high-speed motor, driving a direct-current gene- 
rator, which in turn supplies current at varying voltages to 600-volt 
direct-current motors, may be used. High voltages are not practical 
with motor-car trains, without the use of step-down transformers. 

Designs of motors for locomotive service are better, because the space 
between or above large drivers, or above the frames, may be used. In- 
sulation of motors can be used more liberally or more advantageously. 

Cost of equipment is reduced with locomotives. Larger motors are 
used, the installation is concentrated, and few changes are required in 
existing passenger and freight cars. 

Maintenance of equipment is lower than on motor-car trains Fewer 
motors are placed on the locomotive trucks or frames; cleanliness is 
obtained, and insulation is not easily damaged by moisture. Motor 
equipment is more accessible and can receive better supervision and 
inspection to prolong its life. The number of parts is less with the larger 
motors and thus the cost of repairs and inspection of motors and con- 
trollers is less. The total maintenance cost of motors of locomotives 
per ton-mile or per passenger-mile hauled is less than 60 per cent, of the 
maintenance cost of motors on cars. 

ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE DESIGN. 

Modern electric locomotives for railroad trains represent the cul- 
mination of numerous efforts in design, beginning even before the pioneer 
days at Baltimore, in 1895. A general review will assist in gaging the 
value of the work done and will classify some of the features which 
follow in "Technical Descriptions of Electric Locomotives." 

Up to the year 1905, there had been few attempts at standardization 
of frames or of mechanical motion, for either freight or passenger service. 
Each new locomotive had special features in design; but almost every 



286 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

conceivable wheel arrangement, dr'ving mechanism, and general pro- 
portion had been tried out, in an effort to create ideal types. 

It is a notable fact, that, following the adoption of electric locomotive 
power by the leading steam railroads, since 1906, the character of the 
construction and the mechanical arrangement of the electric locomotive 
frame, truck, wheels, etc., have been rapidly improved, and standardized 
to some extent. 

E'ectric locomotives are energy-collecting and transmitting machines, 
as contrasted with steam locomotives which are prime movers, that is, 
energy-generating machines, a fundamental difference which affects opera- 
tion and design. This inherent difference is such that steam practice 
and experience cannot be utilized. The boiler, furnace, and fuel and 
water supply, and the reciprocating strains are absent. 

Designs of e ectric machines generally embrace a box-shaped sym- 
metrical cab or superstructure, double-end operation, flexible fn^mes, 
light-weight plate and rolled-steel shapes in side framing, transmission of 
forces and strains of freight locomotives thru articulated trucks, lower 
center of gravity, geared and direct connection of motive power to axles, 
and, except in Pennsylvania type locomotives, journals outside of the 
driving wheels. In braking, the energy of rotation stored up in large 
heavy motors require more powerful brakes, larger brake shoes, and 
tires to dissipate the stored energy. In electric freight locomotives 
ballast is often added to get the desired tractional adhesion. 

Electric locomotive design, as a matter of prime importance, embraces 
a machine which is capable of performing the same kind of service which 
the modern steam locomotive now performs; which exceeds the steam 
locomotive in its power capacity; and which is adapted for branch lines, 
light passenger and heavy freight service. George Westinghouse, 1910. 

Mistakes made in the design of early electric locomotives were caused 
by lack of experience, by not appreciating the problems, by a desire for 
simplicity, and by unsatisfactory compromises between steam and elec- 
tric locomotive designers. 

1; Low centers of gravity were used, which at high speed caused the curves to be 
slewed. 

2. Heavy dead weights were not spring-mounted, and the track was destroyed 
by the intensity of the blows at low joints, badly aligned spots, and special work at 
crossings and switches. Side springs were not used between motors and frames to 
ease the blow on the curves. G earless motors increased the cost of track mainte- 
nance, when they were not spring-mounted. 

3. High speeds were attempted without locomotive guiding truck wheels. Lead- 
ing trucks are necessary and they must carry a considerable vertical load (20,000 to 
28,000 pounds per axle), otherwise high-speed running becomes hard and dangerous. 
Rigid frames and symmetrical disposition produced severe nosing effects. 

4. Concentration of power on a shoit driver-wheel base produced strains with 



CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 287 

great intensity of pressure and with suddenness of application. Electric locomotives 
pitched and rolled, with the best track alignment. 

5. Bearings on motors were not long enough and, with the added heat radiated 
by the motor, they ran hot. 

6. Motors were not accessible for inspection, nor easily removed from the loco- 
motive, for overhauling and repairs. 

7. Ratings of motors on the one-hour basis were misleading and deceiving; and 
ratings based on continuous performance or for many hours' run were not known. 
Trouble and disappointment followed until some of these things related to design 
were understood and corrected. 

Types of locomotives are classified with reference to trucks: 

1. Rigid wheel base types (a) without leading and trailing trucks, (b) with 
leading and trailing trucks. Examples: Grand Trunk; New York Central. 

2. Separated bogie truck types (a) symmetrical and (b) unsymmetrical, the 
trucks being connected thru the upper frames. Examples: New Haven, passenger; 
Great Northern. 

3. Articulated trucks, wherein two sections are hinged back to back. Examples: 
Pennsylvania; Michigan Central. 

Other classifications can be made with reference to motor mounting, the 
mechanical transmission of power between the motors and driving axles, etc. 

Mr. George Gibbs tested many types of electric locomotives for the 
Pennsylvania Railroad Company in 1909, to determine the relative riding 
qualities of high-speed ocomotives. He states: 

'' It was found that all types of locomotives were practically steady at speeds 
under 40 miles per hour, but that above this speed marked differences appeared; 
that the steadiest riding machines were those with (a) high center of gravity and (b) 
with long and unsymmetrical wheel base. In other words, that the nearer steam 
locomotive design is approached in wheel arrangement, distribution of weight, height 
of center of gravity, and ratio of spring-borne to under-spring weight, the less the side 
pressures registered on the rail head. In addition to the excessive side pressures on 
the rail head, due to the oscillation and "nosing" of a low center of gravity machine, 
abnormal track effects may be caused by the vertical pounding due to a large non- 
spring-borne motor weight, or to weights with imperfect spring cushion. A remedy 
for all of these defects appears to mean a combination of driving and cairying wheels, 
an unsymmetrically disposed wheel base and the setting of the motors on the main 
frames above the axles." Electric Locomotives. International Railway Congress, 1910; 
Ry. Age Gazette, March 25, 1910, p. 830; E. R. J., June 3, 1911, p. 961. 

Mr. Sprague thinks that nosing on New York Central, and other 
electric locomotives, is caused by the driver treads, which are cones, and 
these try alternately to mount or ride on the flange side of the tread, 
producing a swinging or lateral motion. These vibrations are dampened 
by time-element springs, and the blows of the wheels are attenuated. 

Mr. Sprague states emphatically that the hard riding qualities of the New York 
Central locomotives are not due to their low center of gravity and symmetrical base, 
but rather to the absence of sufficient resistance in the pony-truck centering springs 
to prevent nosing. A. I. E. E., July 1, 1910. 



288 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Center of gravity of electric locomotives is usually low. 

CENTER OF GRAVITY OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES. 



Name of railroad. 



Kind 

of 
service. 



Speed 


Year 


Wt. 


Diam. 


Diam. 


Armature 


in 


first 


in 


of 


of 


center 


m.p.h. 


used. 


tons. 


Arm. 


Drivers. 


above rail. 


25 


1895 


96 




62" 


31.0" 


25 


1903 


80 




42 


22.1 


26 


1910 


92 


25.0 


50 


26.1 


60 


1906 


95 


29.0 


44 


22.0 


60 


1909 


115 


29.0 


44 


22.0 


60 


1907 


96 


39.5 


62 


31.0 


60 


1909 


102 


39.5 


62 


31.0 


35 


1909 


140 


39.5 


63 


63.7 


35 


1910 


135 


76.0 


57 


91.0 


38 


1904 


69 


68.0 


59 


41.0 


40 


1905 


97 




56 


28.0 


40 


1909 


100 




72 


36.0 


66 


1910 


157 


56.0 


72 


93.5 


25 


1908 


66 


30.0 


62 


31.0 


15 


1909 


115 


35.75 


60 


30.0 


22 


1909 


100 


25.0 


48 


25.1 


30 


1900 


55 


23.5 


49 


24.5 



Center of 
gravity- 
above rail. 



Baltimore & Ohio . 

New York Central 
New Haven 



Valtellina, 1904 .... 

Pennsylvania 10,001 

10,003 

Pennsylvania 

Grand Trunk 

Great Northern 

Michigan Central . . . 
Paris- Orleans 



Passenger. . . . 

Freight 

Freight 

Passenger. . . . 
Passenger. . . . 
Passenger. . . . 
Passenger. . . . 
Fgt. geared . . 
Fgt. side-rod. 
Passenger. . . . 
Experimental 
Experimental 
Passenger. . . . 

All trains 

All trains . . . . 
All trains . . . . 
Passenger. . . . 



The tendency is to use larger driver diameters to get a longer life from the tires. 
Steam locomotives in passenger service have a center of gravity about 72 inches 
above the rails. 

No diversity of opinion would exist regarding the advantage of a low 
center of gravity, nor would the track maintenance be higher, with a low 
center of gravity, provided (1) The track and rails were level tangents; 
(2) the weight and power of the locomotive were well distributed, not 
concentrated; (3) the two or four guiding wheels were not omitted, and 
(4) the armature and motor frame weights were not rigidly mounted. 

A four-wheeled leading truck turns on its pivot and instead of 
attempting to at once turn the mass of the locomotive, the forward 
wheels act as a guide, with the rear as a fulcrum. V^heels are not rigidly 
mounted in bearings, but they traverse slightly, in any direction, without 
moving the whole mass of the locomotive. 

Electric machines with low center of gravity have less tendency to 
topple over, but have greater resultant side thrusts on the rail head. 
Electric locomotives in high-speed service must be properly guided, 
and must have a high center of gravity, for service over ordinary irregular 
track. The locomotive then heels over at the curves and increases the 
vertical pressure on the rails, rather than the side thrust. 

The nosing of the motor cars is held to be small because the product of the lever 
arm about the center pin of the rear truck, and the mass on front of the rear truck 
make a small moment to produce lateral components or harmonic vibrations, com- 
pared with the moment arm of the car body. 



CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 



289 



MECHANICAL DATA AND WEIGHT OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES. 



Name of railroad. 


Year 
built. 


1-hour, 
h.p. 


Wheel 
order. 


Tons 
motors. 


Tons 
total. 


Tons on 
drivers. 


Pounds per 
driv. axle. 


Baltimore & Ohio 

New York Central 


1895 
1903 
1910 
1906 
1909 
1910 
1909 
1907 
1909 
1902 
1904 
1906 
1909 
1909 
1908 
1908 

1907 
1908 
1909 
1910 
1911 
1911 
1906 
1910 
1910 
1911 
1910 
1911 
1911 


1080 

800 

1100 

2200 

2200 

2500 

1100 

1100 

1700 

600 

1200 

1500 

1980 

1700 

720 

670 

960 

960 
1260 
1350 
1396 

600 
1050 
1050 
1600 
2000 
1600 

800 
2000 


OO-OO 

00-00 

00-00 

oOOOOo 

ooOOOOoo 

ooOO-OOoo 

OO-OO 

oOOOo 

OOOO 

OO-OO 

oOOOo 

oOOOo 

OOOOO 

00-00 

ooo 

OO-OO 

OO-OO 

oOO-OOo 

oOO-OOo 

oOO-OOo 

ooOOOOoo 

OO-OO 

00-00 

oOOOo 

oOO-Obo 

000-000 

oOOOo 

oooo 

000-000 


22.0 
21.0 
25.0 
25.0 
43.0 
22.3 
25.0 
27.0 
22.0 
27.5 
27.3 
27.0 
30.0 
23.5 

33.4 
33.4 
40.0 
41.6 

16.0 

30.0 
21.0 
30.0 


96 

80 

92 

95 

115 

157 

100 

70 

76 

52 

69 

69 

67 

115 

66 

72 

96 

102 

140 

135 

116 

80 

66 

71 

103 

97 

. 88 

64 

110 


96 
80 
92 
68 
71 
100 
100 
50 
76 
52 
47 
47 
67 
115 
66 
72 

96 

77 
96 
92 


48,000 
40,000 
46,000 
33,500 
35,500 
50,000 
50,000 
33,333 


Michigan Central 

Simp Ion 


Valtellina 


38,000 
26,000 


Giovi 

Great Northern 

Grand Trunk 


31,340 
31,340 
26,800 
57,500 
44,000 
36,000 

48,000 
38,500 
48,000 
46,000 


Spokane & Inland 

New Haven: 

Passenger, 020 

Passenger, 041 

Freight, 071 

Freight, 070 

Freight, 069 


Switcher, 0200 

Oranienburg 

Baden State 


80 
66 


40,000 
33,000 


Bernese Alps, A. E.G.. . 
Oer. 

French Southern 

Prussian State 

Swedish State 


75 
97 
61 
64 
110 


37,500 
33,600 
40,600 
36,500 
36,666 



The weight per driver axle for high-speed electric locomotive service 
should not exceed 40,000 with ordinary track and 50,000 with very good 
rail, bridges, and road bed — even in slow-speed service. The lower 
weight per axle greatly decreases the cost of track ma'ntenance. Euro- 
pean practice indicates 35,000 to 40,000 pounds per axle. German gov- 
ernment has specified a maximum of 36,000 pounds per axle. 

Dead weight per driving axle of New York Central electric locomotives 
is 13,000 pounds; of Michigan Central is 14,000 pounds; of Great North- 
ern is 18,300 pounds. 



19 



290 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



MECHANICAL DATA ON TRUCKS OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES. 



Name of railroad. 



1-Hour 
h.p. 



Tons 
total. 



Wheel base. 



Rigid. 



Total. 



Lbs. per ft 
total base. 



Baltimore & Ohio. . . . 

New York Central. . . . 

Pennsylvania 

Michigan Central 

St. Louis & Belleville. 
Buffalo & Lockport. . . 

Hoboken Shore 

Illinois Traction 

Paris-Orleans 

Milan-Gallarate 

Simplon 

Valtellina 

Giovi 

Great Northern 

Grand Trunk 

Spokane 

New Haven 041 

071 

070 

069 

0200 

Oranienburg 

Baden State 

French Southern 

Bernese Alps, A. E.G. . 
Bernese Alps, Oerlikon 



1080 
800 

1100 

2200 

2500 

1100 

640 

640 

400 

800 

1000 

640 

1100 

1700 

600 

1200 

1500 

1980 

1700 

720 

680 

960 

1260 

1350 

1396 

600 

1050 

1050 

1600 

1600 

2000 



96 

80 

160 

92 

115 

157 

100 

50 

38 

64 

60 

55 

37 

70 

76 

52 

68 

69 

67 

115 

66 

72 

102 

140 

135 

116 

80 

66 

71 

88 

103 

97 



6'-10'' 
14-6 3/4 
14-6 3/4 

9-6 
13-0 

7-2 

9-6 

6-0 

6-0 



7-2 

7-10 

6-10 

6-9 

5-7 

6-7 

16-1 

15-5 

10-1 

11-0 

16-0 



8-0 

7-0 

8 -0 

11-0 

8-0 

10-10 

11-6 

11-10 

9-11 

13-5 



23^-2 3/4' 

14-6 3/4 

44 -2 3/4 

27-6 

36-0 

55-11 

27-6 

20-6 

13-0 



26-2 

23-10 

21-4 

31-10 

26-3 

21-9 

31 -10 

31-2 

20-2 

31-9 

16-0 



30-10 

38-6 

43-6 

39-0 

23-6 

31-5 

31-2 

31-6 

42-2 

36-5 



8,300 
10,990 
7,240 
6,700 
6,390 
5,610 
7,275 
4,900 
5,840 



4,550 
4,520 
3,640 
4,400 
5,800 
4,775 
4,275 
4,400 
6,150 
7,250 
8,250 



6,620 
7,275 
6,210 
6,000 
6,810 
4,200 
4,550 
5,650 
4,880 
5,310 



CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 



291 



WEIGHT-FACTOR OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES IN 
RAILROAD SERVICE. 



1 

Name of railroad. Nameoi 
builder 


Kind of 
service. 


Speed 
m.p.h. 


1-hr. 
h.p. 


Wt., 
tons. 


1-hr. h.p. 
per ton. 


Cont. 
h.p. 


Cont. h.p. 
per ton. 




16 
9 
26 
60 
60 
10 
10 
6 
30 


1080 

800 

1100 

2200 

2500 

1100 

360 

400 

960 

800 

1000 


96 

80 

92 

115 

157 

100 

50 

60 

60 

51 

51 


11.3 

10.0 

12.0 

19.1 

15.9 . 

11.0 

7.2 

6.6 
16.0 
15.7 
16.4 






Baltimore & Ohio .... OF, 


1 Freight 

Freight 

Terminal . . 
Terminal . . 

Tunnel 

Switcher. . . 
Switcher. . . 

Freight 

Terminal 






Baltimore & Ohio .... 
New York Central .... 


G.E... 
G.E... 
G.E... 
G.E.... 
G.E... 
West. . 
G.E... 
T.H ... 
T.H... 


460 
1000 
1600 

475 


5.0 
9.0 

9.8 


Michigan Central 

Bush Terminal 


4.7 


Hoboken Shore 






Illinois Traction 






Metropolitan 

Paris- Orleans 






Terminal . . 

i 


30 













Weight factor does not refer to efficiency of design. A motor with slow peripheral 
speed, or a small switcher, or a slow-speed locomotive cannot be so efficient in 
pounds per ton as one for high speed. Most locomotives for freight service are 
ballasted, or steel is used liberally in the design, to get maximum adhesion for 
traction. 

The speed is not at the 1-hour or continuous h.p. but at the rated loads, or trailing 
tons on the ruUng grade, given in a succeeding table on driver diameters. 

R. p. m. =m. p. h. x gear ratio x 336/ diameter of drivers in inches. 

Data on peripheral speed of motor armatures is given in Chapter V. 

The tendency to rate railroad locomotive motors on the continuous basis, not on 
the l-hour basis, is recognized. 



WEIGHT FACTOR OF THREE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES IN 
RAILROAD SERVICE. 



Name of 
railroad. 


Name of 
builder. 


No. of 
cycles. 


Kind of 
service. 


Speed 
m.p.h. 


1-hr. 
h.p. 


Wt., 
tons. 


1-hr. 

h.p. 

per ton. 


Cont. 
h.p. 


Cont. 

h.p. 

per ton. 


Valtellina Ganz .... 


1 
15 i Freight... 
15 Passenger 

15 Passenger 

16 Freight. . . 
16 Freight. . . 


19 
38 
40 
28 
16 


600 
1200 
1500 
1980 

320 
1100 
1700 
1700 


52 
69 
69 
67 
30 
70 
76 
115 


11.6 
17.4 
21.7 
29.5 
10.6 
15.7 
22.4 
14.8 






V'altellina Ganz 






Valtellina Ganz 






Giovi-Savona.. . . ; West 

Santa Fe Brown. . . 


1440 


21.5 


Simplon Brown . . . 


16 Freight. . .1 43 
16 Mixed 4.*^ 










Great Northern.. 


Gen. Elec . 


25 


Mixed.... 


15 


1500 


13.0 



European locomotives have exceedingly light frames, suitable for medium speeds. 
American locomotives haul 3 to 4 times the tonnage per train. Tons of 2000 pounds. 
Great Northern continuous rating is on forced draft. 



292 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



WEIGHT FACTOR OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES IN 
RAILROAD SERVICE. 



Name of 
railroad. 



Name 


of No. of 


builde 


r. cycles. 


West. 


25 


West. 


25 


West. 


25 


West. 


25 


West. 


25 


West. 


25 


West. 


25 


West. 


25 


West. 


25 


West. 


25 


West. 


25 


West. 


25 


G.E.. 


25 


West. 


25 


Siemer 


IS 25 


Siemer 


IS 25 


A.E.G 


25 


West. 


15 


West. 


15 


G.E.. 


15 


West. 


15 


A.E.G 


15 


G.E.. 


15 


SiemeE 


s 15 


Oerlikc 


m 15 


Siemen 


s 15 


A.E.G 


15 


A.E.G 


15 


Oerlikc 


m 15 


Siemen 


s 15 


Siemen 


s 15 


A.E.G 


15 


A.E.G 


15 


A.E.G 


15 

1 



Kind of 
service. 



Speed 
m.p.h. 



1-hr. 
h.p. 



Wt. 

tons. 



1-hr. h.p 
per ton. 



Cont. 
h.p. 



Cont.h.p. 
per txjn. 



West. Interworlcs 
Windsor, Essex & 

Lake Shore. 
Spokane & I. E. 
Spokane & I. E. 
Grand Trunk . . . 
Rock Island. . . . 
New Haven 041 . 

069. 

070. 

071. 

0200. 

Boston & Maine. 

Illinois Traction. 
Swedish State . . . 
Prussian State . . . 



Pennsylvania 
Visalia Electric. 

Shawinigan 

French Southern . 



General Electric 
Swiss Federal 

Baden State 

(Wiesental) 
Bernese Alps. . . 

Swedish State . . 

Prussian State . . 

Mittenwald 



Freight. . 
Freight. . 

Freight. . 
Freight. . 
Freight. . 
Freight. . 
Passenger 
Freight. . 
Freight. . 
Freight . . 
Switcher 
Freight . 



Freight. . . 
Freight. . . 
Freight. . . 
Freight. . . 
Freight. . . 
Passenger. 
Freight. . . 
Freight. . . 
Freight. . . 
Freight. . . 
Freight. . . 
Freight. . . 
Freight. . . 
Freight. . . 
Freight. . . 
Freight. . . 
Freight . . . 
Freight. . . 
Passenger. 
Freight. . . 
Freight. . . 
Freight. . . 



40 
40 

25 
15 
25 
40 
70 
35 
35 
35 



675 

400 

500 

680 

720 

500 

960 

1396 

1260 

1350 

600 

1340 

1340 

600 

460 

330 

1050 

1050 

920 

500 

600 

1200 

1600 

800 

1350 

500 

1050 

780 

1600 

2000 

2500 

1000 

1000 

800 

800 



68 
35 

52 

72 

66 

50 

102 

116 

135 

140 

80 

130 

130 

50 

40 

40 

66 

65 

76 

47 

50 

89 

94 

125 

83 

45 

71 

71 

103 

97 

110 

77 

77 

64 

64 



9.9 
11.4 

9.6 

9.5 

10.9 

10.0 

9.6 

12.0 

9.3 

9.6 

7.5 

10.3 

10.3 

12.0 

11.5 

8.3 

16.0 

16.1 

12.1 

10.6 

12.0 

13.4 

17.0 

6.4 

16.1 

11.1 

14.8 

11.0 

15.5 

20.6 

18.2 

13.0 

12.9 

12.5 

12.5 



385 
560 
570 



800 



1120 
1130 
450 
1180 
1180 



620 



900 



780 



7.4 
7.8 



8.0 



8.3 
8.0 
5.7 
9.1 
9.1 



10.1 



10.9 



CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 



293 



WEIGHT ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT. 
Direct-current, 600-volt Locomotives. 



Locomotive 
name. 



B. & O. ! B. & O. 

Xv.xv. I Iv.xv. 

I 



B. &0. 
R.R. 



New York 
Central. 



Michigan 
Central. 



Pennsyl- 
vania. 



Pennsyl- 
vania. 



Year. . . 
Type.. 
Motors. 
H.p... 



1895 

Gearless. 

4 

1080 



Weights: 

Mechanical 

Motors 

Electrical parts . 
Total weights . . . 
On drivers 



Per cent: 

Mechanical 

Motor 

Electrical parts . 

On drivers 



192,600 
192,600 



100.0 



1903 

Geared. 

4 

800 



115,270 

35,420 

9,310 

160,000 

160,000 



72.0 
22.2 

5.8 

100.0 



1910 

Geared. 

4 

1100 



130,000 

42,240 

11,760 

184,000 

184,000 



70.8 

22.8 

6.4 

100.0 



1908 

Gearless. 

4 

2200 



157,300 

50,000 

22,700 

230,000 

141,000 



68.4 

21.7 

9.9 

61.3 



1909 

Geared. 

4 

1100 



136,000 

46,400 

17,600 

200,000 

200,000 



68.0 
23.2 



100.0 



1910 

Crank. 

2 

2500 



197,000 

89,000 

28,000 

314,000 

200,000 



62.7 

28.3 

9.0 

63.7 



1905 
Gearless. 



1280 



45,000 



195,140 
195,140 



23.1 



100.0 



Pennsylvania 1909 locomotives were modified, and those built in 1910 weigh 157 
tons and have 100 tons on the drivers. 



WEIGHT ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT. 
Three-phase, Freight Locomotives. 



Locomotive 
name. 



Giovi or j Simplon 
Savona. Tunnel. 




Simplon 
Tunnel. 



Valtel- 
lina. 



Valtel- 
lina. 



Valtel- 
lina. 



Great 
Northern. 



Year. . . 
Type.. 
Motors. 
H.p... 



Weights : 
Mechanical 

Motors 

Transformers. . 
Electrical parts 
Total weights . . 
On drivers 

Per cent: 

Mechanical. . . . 

Motor 

Transformers. . . 
Electrical parts . 



On drivers. 



100.0 



67.0 



1909 

Crank. 

2 

1700 



74,000 
55,000 
13,100 
10,000 
152,000 
152,000 



48.7 

36.2 

8.6 

6.5 

100.0 



1902 

Crank. 

4 

600 



44,000 




104,000 
104,000 



42.0 




100.0 



1904 

Crank. 

2 

1200 



68 000 
55,600 

15,000 
138,000 
94,000 



49.1 

40.8 



10.7 

68.0 



1906 

Crank. 

2 

1500 



54,600 




138,000 
94,000 



68.0 



1909 

Geared. 

4 

1700 



111,500 

59,800 

20,800 

37,900 

230,000 

230,000 



48.5 

26.0 

9.0 

16.5 

100.0 



294 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



WEIGHT ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT. 
Single-phase Locomotives. 



Locomotive 
name. 



French 
Southern 



Spokane 
& I.E. 



Bernese 
Alps. 



Grand 
Trunk. 



New Haven 
freight. 



New Haven 
passenger. 



Year. . . 
Type. . 
Motors . 
H.p.... 



Weights : 

Mechanical. . . 

Heater 

Motors 

Transformers . 
Elec. parts. . . 

Total 

On drivers . . . 



Per cent: 

Mechanical. . . 

Motor 

Transformers . 
Elec. parts. . . 



On drivers. 



1909 

Geared 

2 

1200 



82,960 



59,200 

18,680 

18,020 

178,860 

123,500 



46.4 
33.0 
10.3 
10.3 



69.0 



1907 

Geared. 

4 

680 



83,379 



1910 

Crank. 

2 

2000 



116,560 



47,500 

6,155 

8,126 

145,160 

145,160 



57.3 

32.8 

4.3 

5.6 

100.0 



42,240 

24,200 

11,000 

194,000 

194,000 



60.0 

21.8 

12.5 

5.7 

100.0 



1907 

Geared. 

3 

720 



69,580 



47,557 

5,550 

9,313 

132,000 

132,000 



52.6 

36.2 

4.2 

7.0 

100.0 



1909 

Geared. 

4 

1260 



169,872 

5,590 

79,000 

14,060 

32,349 

300,871 

188,000 



62.5 



1908 

Quill. 

4 

960 



89,000 

5,000 

66,840 

} 43,160 

204,000 
154,000 



46.0 
32.8 

21.2 
75.5 



New Haven geared freight locomotive vs^as redesigned in 1910 and the weight 
reduced to 280,000 pounds. 



SUMMARY ON 


ANALYSIS OF LOCOMOTIVE WEIGHTS. 


Locomotive. 


Direct cur- 
rent. 


Three-phase. 


Single-phase. 


Motor 
generator. 


Weight, mechanical 

Weight of paotor 


ave. 

50 to 72 66 

20 to 27 24 

5 to 10 8 



16 


ave. 

48 to 56 51 

26 to 40 30 

7 to 10 9 

OtolO 10 

18 


ave. 

46 to 59 58 

26 to 36 27 

7 to 11 8 

8 7 

14 


ave. 
43 
30 


Weight of electrical parts . 
Weight of transformer. . . . 

H.p. per ton, about 


21 
6 

8 



A study of this statistical table shows that data must be used with great care. 
Note, that thg reason why the mechanical weights of direct-current locomotives 
are high in percentage, is because the electrical weights are low. Three-phase motor 
weights appear to be high, but this is not true, the fact being that European designers 
simply use light mechanical frames. As more data are added, the averages will 
become of more value. The 1-hour h. p. per ton is not a fair basis for comparison. 
When data on the continuous h. p, per ton are compared the differences decrease. 

See table comparing Oerlikon locomotives of Bernese Alps Railway, under 
"Technical Description of Single-phase Locomotives," page 395. 



CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 295 

MECHANICAL TRANSMISSION OF MOTIVE POWER. 

Motor connections to locomotive drivers or axles are provided by 
the use of several schemes, as follows : 

1. Gearless motors, with armature o?i axle, connected (a) directly or 
solid, as in New York Central of 1906; (b) flexibly, by quill over 
axle and spring connection to drivers by radial arms, as in Baltimore 
& Ohio of 1896 and New York, New Haven & Hartford passenger locomo- 
tives of 1907. 

2. Geared motors mounted between or over axles for gear connection 
to axle (a) directly, with the center line of motor shaft at or just above 
the elevation of the center line of the axle, as in motor cars. Great 
Northern, Grand Trunk, and Michigan Central locomotives; (b) 
indirectly thru a quill surrounding the axle, which quill is flexibly 
connected to the arms in the drivers, as in the Boston & Maine geared 
freight locomotives, the 4 motors of which are directly over the 4 driver 
axles; (c) indirect^, three gears and side rods, as in Oerlikon locomo- 
tives on the Bernese Alps Railway. 

3. Crank motors mounted over or between the drivers and crank 
connected from armature to side rods or to side-rod frames (a) directly, 
as in Field's locomotive of 1889 (see engraving of same in history of 
electric locomotives); (b) almost directly, but thru a Scotch yoke, as in 
the Valtellina and Simplon locomotives, where the 2 motors are con- 
nected together and connected to 3 sets of drivers; (c) indirectly 
thru countershaft, which engages with side rods, as in the Pennsylvania 
Railroad locomotives. 

4. Mounting of motors between drivers and connection thereto by 
means of wide-faced friction wheels on the armature which engage in 
fi-iction wheels on the axle. This scheme, used by Daft in his early 
locomotive, has recently been retried by inventors. The pressure 
between pulleys is varied by means of compressed air. 

Drivers are coupled by side rods to prevent slipping of individual 
drivers, from non-uniform application of power by individual motors, or 
from varying driver diameters, or from varying tractional friction. 
When all drivers are coupled, one or more motors may be disabled, yet 
the remaining motors or motor can distribute the available tractive 
effort to all of the drivers. 

Gears versus cranks, with or without crank shafts, for the mechan- 
ical connection between armature and drivers, are frequently debated. 
The superiority of either has not yet been generally established. 

AVith slow-speed train haulage, gears at each end of an armature shaft 
are fairly satisfactory. For high-speed train haulage, large locomotive 
motor gears of the ordinary spur type with the best well-machined steel, 



296 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



wide faces, and with high-pressure oil lubrication are not able to with- 
stand the wear. The repeated shock, as the teeth engage, destroys 
them quickly after the axle and motor bearings are worn A gradual 
engagement of teeth, which is possible with special gearing, is being 
tried out in high-speed service by Oerlikon locomotives on European 
railroads. 

Relation of speed to driver diameter is now considered. 

Observe that high-speed, geared motor armatures, 500 to 1000 r.p.m., 
are advantageous because they decrease the weight and the diameter of 
the motor. Speeds of 200 to 500 r.p.m. are required for gearless motors. 
See Armature Speed of Motors, under Motor Design, Chapter V. 



1000 
900 

800 

700 

a COO 

i 

I 500 

> 

400 

300 

, 300 

100 



















/ 


/. 
















/ 


// 


/ 
















A/ 




^ 














*// 


/ 


Vi 


■4 










/ 


// 


/ 


e^ 




^ 

^ 










// 


A 


/^ 


^ 










A 


yy 

^ 


^1 


^ 


^^ 


^ 


^^^ 






/y^. 


fe 


y ^ 

l:^^"^ 


H 


^ 


^ 


^ 






A 


^ 


^ 














J\ 




'-^ 

















10 ;iO 30 40 50 60 
Miles per Hour 



70 



80 90 



100 



Fig. 83. — Diagram Showing Relation of Revolutions per Minute and Miles per Hour to 

Driver Diameter. 



Driver diameters are made as large as possible to increase the area of 
the rail contact to decrease the intensity of pressure, stress, and wear, 
and the maintenance and renewal cost, of both the rail and the drivers. 
Lower surface speed of journals is also gained. With geared and crank 
types of locomotives, some motor and driver restrictions are removed. 

Drivers less than 44 inches in diameter are not practical for large 
gearless locomotives. New York Central locomotives with 44-inch 
drivers, at 500 r. p. m., run at 66 m. p. h. It would not be practical to 
build a larger motor of this type for slow-speed freight service; for, as 



CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 297 

shown by the accompanying diagram, if 44-inch drivers are used, the 
speed of the armature would be low. For example, with 250 r. p. m. 
or 33 m. p. h., the diameter of the motor would be too large for the 
drivers. 

New Haven gearless passenger locomotives, with 62-inch drivers, at 
380 r. p. m., run at 70 m. p. h., and at 325 r. p. m., run at 60 m. p. h. 

Driver diameters are thus involved in the design of the m.echanical 
connections between the armature and the axle. 

DRIVER DIAMETERS USED IN ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES. 



Name of railroad. 



Kind of 


Power 


Trailing 


service. 


h.p. 


tons. 


Passenger. . . . 


2200 


435 


Passenger. . . . 


1080 


900 


Freight 


800 


1020 


Freight 


1100 


850 


Passenger 


2500 


550 


Passenger. . . . 


960 


250 


Freight 


1396 


1500 


Freight 


1350 


1500 


Freight 


1260 


1500 


Passenger 


1260 


800 


Switch 


600 


450 


Passenger 


2000 


280 


Freight 


1980 


209 


Passenger 


. 720 


400 


Freight 


720 


1000 


General 


1100 


900 


General 


1900 


500 


Passenger 


1200 


300 


General 


1700 


440 



Balance 
speed, m. p. h 



Grade, 
p.c. 



Driver 
diameter. 



Baltimore & Ohio 
Baltimore & Ohio. 
Baltimore & Ohio . 



Pennsylvania. . 
New Haven 41 



70... 

71. . . 

71. . . 

0200. 
Bernese Alps . . . . 

Giovi 

Grand Trunk 



Michigan Central 

Great Northern. . 

Paris-Orleans . . . 

implon 



60 
16 
9 
26 
18. 
60 
70 
35 
35 
35 
45 
26 
25 
28 
25 
10 
10 
15 
30 
43 





1.5 

1.5 



1.5 















2.7 

2.7 



2.0 

2.0 

1.7 



0.7 



57 
63 
63 
63 
53 
42 
62 
62 
48 
60 
49 
49 



Gearless motors mounted on locomotive axles have, as characteristic 
features of design, simplicity of mechanical and also electrical construc- 
tion, high efficiency, very heavy dead weight, low maintenance, small 
diameter of drivers, low center of gravity, and high track maintenance. 
The design is not suitable for freight service. Gearless operation, while 
desirable, requires high train speed. Peripheral speeds of armatures 
are less than the train speed, in feet per minute. 

Gearless motors, mounted on quills surrounding the driver axles have 
a higher weight, and cost. Suspension of the stator on the locomotive 
frames, and spring-mounting of the armature, greatly reduce the cost of 
motor and track maintenance. 

Geared motors allow either a partial or a complete spring-mounting 
of the motor, and with ordinary drivers, a much higher motor speed, 
decreased weight, and lower cost. 



298 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Great Northern locomotives, for 15 m. p. h., with 60-inch drivers have a driver 
speed of 84 r. p. m. The gear ratio used is 4.26, making the speed of the motor 358 
r. p. m. at full load. Gearing is placed at each end of the armature shaft. Armatures 
are 36 inches in diameter. 

Motor cars with 36-inch wheels, running at 45 m. p. h. maximum, have a driver 
speed of 420 r. p. m. Gear ratios of 3 allow a small-diameter armature to run at 
1260 r. p. m. 

Geared freight locomotives with 62-inch drivers running at 35 m. p. h., or 186 
r. p. m., require a gear ratio of 2.3 to 3.0 in order to get a light weight, geared motor 
(New Haven freight) ; but if the maximum speed is to be 25 m. p. h., the gear ratio 
must be from 4 to 5 in common cases (Grand Trunk, Spokane & Inland, Michigan 
Central). Quill and spring connection requires large drivers. 

Geared motors with one end mounted directly on the axle are not suitable for 
high-speed work, because, with non-spring-borne motors the power exerted by con- 
cussion, l/2Mv^, destroys the track. 

Crank and side -rod constructions are not a recent development in locomotive 
design. 

Stephen D. Field's locomotive, which was tried on the Thirty-fourth Street branch 
of the New York Elevated Railroad in 1889, had two coupled axles on the rear or 
driving truck, as in an Atlantic type steam locomotive. The armature of the motor 
had an extended crank which was connected to the middle of the side rod. The effort 
exerted was absolutely uniform. Martin and Wetzler, ''The Electric Motor," 
1889, p. p. 190 and 204; Electrical Engineer, Dec. 9, 1891. 

North American locomotive, designed by Sprague, Hutchinson, and Duncan, in 
1893, had the motors between the drivers, and side rods connecting the drivers, but 
the armatures were not crank-connected. 

Valtelhna locomotives of 1902 appear to have been next to follow the crank and 
side-rod construction, including the use of Scotch yoke. See description of Valtellina, 
Simplon Tunnel, and Giovi locomotives, in Chapter IX. 

The jackshaft between the crank rod from the armature shaft and the side rod 
became a necessity to allow for inequalities in the elevation of the track. 

Crank and side-rod construction, or gears, with cranks and siderods, with or 
without jackshafts, has these advantages: 

1 . Tractive effort is increased by coupling the driving axles. Consult : Dodd, A. I. 
E. E., June, 1905; Sperry, A. I. E. E., June, 1910. In case one motor is out of service 
the adhesion is furnished by each driver. 

2. Center of gravity is high and this is an advantage in relieving the strain on the 
head of the rail when the locomotive rocks or cants outward in rounding a curve. 

3. Spring supports are practical for the armatures and fields of heavy motors. 
The dead weight per axle and track maintenance are reduced. 

4. Limitations of space, particularly between the drivers, are removed, and 
motor design may be perfected. 

5. Distribution of weight is improved, in many cases. 

6. Number of motors may be decreased, from three or four to two or three, 
which affects cost, weight, and simplicity. 

7. Motors are located out of the dust and dirt, and it is not necessary to enclose 
them. Motors may then be made independent of the truck, and armatures can 
readily be removed without dismantling the motor or taking off a driving wheel. 
Insulation space is not limited when large motors and large diameters are used; and 
the insulation is not subjected to water from the road-bed. Higher voltages may thus 
be used on fields. 



CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 



299 



8. Accessibility is obtained for quick inspection and repair work on motors, to 
reduce maintenance cost. 

9, Bearings of armatures may have proper proportions, 

10. Air gaps, when necessarily small, become practical. 

11. Efficiency, power factor, and torque are improved. 

12. Design of jackshaft (crankshaft) is such that the motor may be located in 
about any advantageous position on the frames. 

13. Side rods, standardized for steam locomotives, may be used. 

Disadvantages of crank design with or without countershaft: 

1. Side rods, countershafts, and cranks are heavy, cumbersome, and increase the 
friction, and are objectionable mechanically, compared with geared connections. 
Simplicity is sacrificed. 

2. Strains in countershaft, crank, and shaft are large. 

3. Bearings of motor and countershaft must be large, and motor supporting 
frames must be wide, to keep armature bearings out from under collectors and com- 
mutators. Losses occur in extra bearings, and pounding results from lost motion. 

4. Designs of railway motors, smaller than 400-h.p., work out simpler and better, 
i. e., the side rod and countershaft are not necessary. 

5. Heavy slow-speed motors increase the weight and cost. 
Reference: E. R. J., Oct. 6, 1910; Elec. Journal, Sept., 1910. 



CRANK AND SIDE-ROD ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES. 



Name of railroad. 



No. of, 
loco. 



Year 
built. 




No. of 


Voltage 


No. of 


cycles. 


used. 


motors. 





600 


1 





660 


2 


15 


3,000 


2 


15 


3,000 


2 


15 


3,000 


2 


15 


3,000 


2 


15 


15,000 


2 


15 


15,000 


2 


15 


15,000 


2 


15 


12,000 


2 


15 


12,000 


2 


15 


10,000 


2 


15 


10,000 


2 


15 


11,000 


2 


25 


11,000 


2 


25 


6,000 


2 


15 


15,000 


2 


15 


15,000 


2 


15 


10,000 


2 


15 


10,000 


1 



Wt. 

tons. 



New York Elevated. 1 

Pennsylvania 33 

Valtellina 4 

Giovi and Savona.. 40 

Simplon Tunnel 2 

Simplon Tunnel I 2 

Oerlikon 1 

Bernese-Alps 1 

Bernese-Alps 2 

French Southern. . . 6 

French Southern. . . 1 

Baden State 10 

(WeisentalRy.).. 2 

General Electric ... 1 

New Haven (freight) 1 

St. Polten-Mariazell 17 

Swedish State 13 

2 

Prussian State 10 

Mitten wald 6 



1889 
1910 
1906 
1909 
1906 
1909 
1909 
1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 
1909 
1909 
1909 
1910 
1910 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 



Field... 
West. . . 
Ganz. . . 
West. . . 
Brown.. 
Brown . 

Oer 

Oer 

A.E.G.. 
A.E.G.. 
West. . . 
Siem . . . 
Siem . . . 
G.E.... 
West. . . 
Siemens 
Siemens 
Siemens 
see p. 355 

A.E.G. 



22 
2500 
1500 
1980 
1100 
1700 

400 
2000 
1600 
1600 
1600 

780 
1050 

800 
1350 

500 
2000 
1000 



800 



13 

157 

75 

67 

70 

76 

46 

97 

103 

94 

89 

71 

98 

125 

135 

50 

110 

77 



64 



300 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

COST OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES. 



Name of railroad. 


Electric 
system. 


Kind of 
service. 


Year 
built. 


Wt. 

tons. 


Total 
h.p. 


Estimated 
cost. 


Per 
h.p. 


Per 
lb. 


Baltimore & Ohio 

New York Central 

New York Central 

Pennsylvania R. R 

Illinois Traction 

Boston & Albany 

Milan-Varese 

Gait, Preston & H . . . 

Great Northern 

Simplon Tunnel 

XTawt TTnvpn .... 


D. C... 
D. C... 
D.C.... 
D. C... 
D.C.... 
D.C.... 
DC... 
D.C.... 
3-P.... 
3-P . . . . 

1-P 

1-P . . . . 
1-P ... . 
I-P . . . . 
1-P ... . 
1-P ... . 
1-P ... . 
1-P ... . 


Freight. .. 
Passenger. 
Passenger. 
Passenger. 
Freight. .. 
At Boston 
Freight. . . 
Freight. . . 
General. . . 
General. . . 
Passenger. 
Freight. . . 
At Boston 
General. . . 
General. . . 
Switcher. . 
General. . . 
General. . . 


1903 

1905 

1908 

1910 

1908 
Estimate 

1902 

1911 

1909 

1909 

1907 

1909 
Estimate 

1911 

1908 

1911 
Estimate 


80 

95 

115 

157 

40 


800 
2200 
2200 
2500 

360 


119,000 
27,000- 
33,000 
65,000 
14,000 
34,650 
12,000 
16,000 
40,000 
27,500 
45,000 
60,000 
42,500 
50,000 
26,500 
20,000 


$23 . 75 
12.27 
15.00 
26.00 
38.90 


n.9<t 

14.2 
14.3 
20.7 
17.5 


39 
50 
115 
68 
102 
140 

130 
66 
80 


640 
400 
1700 
1700 
1000 
1350 

1380 
720 
600 


18.75 
40.00 
23.53 
16.20 
45.00 
44.44 


15.4 
16.0 
17.4 
20.2 
22.0 


Arf>Av TTnvpn 


21.5 






Boston & Maine 

Grand Trunk 

OrHinflrv . . . 


36.23 
36.80 
33.33 


19.2 
20.1 
12 5 




18.3 








28,000 



















Cost of steam locomotives is about $15 per h. p., and the cost per 
pound varies from 6.7 to 8.0 cents. 

Electric locomotive motor rating is on the 1-hour basis; with 
forced draft the continuous rating is about 80 per cent, of the 1-hour 
rating. When reduced to cost per continuous h. p., the cost per h. p. 
and per pound is not radically different with different modern designs. 

The cost varies with the state of the art, and with the number of 
locomotives of a type developed which have been sold. The cost of a small 
switching locomotive, per h. p. and per pound, is n^t much less than for 
a heavy locomotive in terminal service or in trunk-line haulage. 

Reduction in cost is of vital importance and can be accomplished by 
the use of cheaper materials, steel plate and rolled shapes in place of 
cast steel, less labor in building up steel parts, and standardization. 

LITERATURE. 
References on Characteristics of Electric Locomotives. 

(See references at the end of Chapter III on Physical and Financial Advantages of 

Electric Traction.) 
Armstrong: Comparative Performance of Steam and Electric Locomotives, A. I. E. E., 

Nov., 1907, p. 1643; S. R. J., Jan. 16, 1904; Nov. 16, 1907; Ry. Age, Nov. 15, 

1907. 
Arnold: Cost of Steam and Electric Power, New York Central, A. I. E. E., June, 1902. 
Burch: Electric Traction for Heavy Railway Service, Northwest Ry. Club, Jan., 1901 ; 

St. Ry. Rev., Jan., 1901; S. R. J., March 9 and 30, 1901. 
Darlington: Application of Electric Power to Railroad Operation, Elec. Journal, Feb. 

and Sept., 1910. 



CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 301 

DeMuralt: Heavy Traction Problems in Electrical Engineering, A. I. E. E., June, 
1905, p. 525; S. R. J., Jan. 1907, p. 114. 

Murray: Data on N. Y., N. H. & H., A. I. E. E., Jan. 25, 1907; Cost of Maintenance, 
Steam and Electric, A. I. E. E., Nov., 1907, p. 1680. 

Potter: Developments in Electric Traction, N. Y. R. R. Club, Jan., 1905; S. R. J., 
Jan. 28, 1905; May 3, 1905; A. I. E. E., June, 1902. 

Proceedings New York Railroad Club, Electric Railroad Discussions, Sept., 1907; 
March, 1908-9-10-11. 

Stillwell: Electric Motor vs. Steam Locomotive, A. I. E. E., Jan., 1907; S. R. J., 
March 16, 1907, p. 457. 

Wiigus: Steam versus Electricity, S. R. J., Oct., 1904; Financial Results from Elec- 
trification, New York Central, A. S. C. E., Feb., 1908; S. R. J., March 7, 1908. 

References on Locomotives for Freight Haulage. 

Valatin: Heavy Electric Railroading, E. W., Nov., 1905, p. 860. 

Leonard: Why Steam Locomotives must be Replaced by Electric Locomotives, 
E. W., Jan. 7, 1905, p. 27; S. R. J., Jan. 27, 1906; Ry. Age, Jan., 1905, p. 185. 
Armstrong: Electricity vs. Steam for Heavy Haulage, S. R. J., May 6, 1905, p. 820. 
Lamme: Alternating Current for Heavy Railway Service, S. R. J., Jan. 6, 1906. 
See technical descriptions of freight locomotives, which follow. 

References on Locomotive Design. 

Gibbs: Electric Locomotives, International Ry. Congress, 1910; Ry. Age, March 25, 
1910, p. 829; E. R. J., March 26, 1910; June 3, 1911, p. 960. 

Westinghouse : Electrification of Railways, A. S. M. E., July, 1910; Electric Journal, 
July and August, 1910; E. R. J., July 2, 1910, p. 12. 

Storer and Eaton: Electric Locomotive Design, A. I. E. E., July, 1910. 

Eaton: Electric Journal, Oct. and Dec, 1910, March, 1911. 

Dodd: Weight Distribution on Electric Locomotives as Affected by Motor Suspen- 
sion and Drawbar Pull. Types illustrated. A. L E. E., June, 1905. 

McClellan: Motors in Steam and Electric Practice, A. I. E. E., June, 1905. 

See editorial in E. R. J., Jan. 7, 1911, p. 4. 

References on Side -rod Construction for Electric Locomotives. 

Field's locomotive: Martin and Wetzler: "The Electric Motor," 1888. 

For Valtellina, Simplon Tunnel, Giovi, New Haven, Pennsylvania R.R., OerHkon, 

General Electric, etc., see technical descriptions which follow. 
Pittsburg Street Railway, Side-rod Trucks, S. R. J., Dec. 14, 1907; Oct. 15, 1910. 
Motor Mounting on Locomotive: E. R. J., Apr., 1910, p. 667, and Oct. 15, 1910, p. 

835. 
Motor Suspension: See "Development of Motor Design," Chapter V. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES. 

Outline. 



Direct-current Locomotives : 



No. 



Wheel order. 



Year. 


H.P. 


Tons. 


1895 


1080 


96 


1903 


800 


80 


1910 


1100 


92 


1898 


640 


38 


1904 


360 


40 


1904 


200 


20 


1898 


400 


64 


1906 


2200 


95 


1908 


2200 


115 


1910 


1100 


100 


1907 


640 


97 


1910 


2500 


157 


1910 


400 


50 


1907 


960 


60 


1904 


640 


55 


1905 


800 


52 


1900 


1000 


55 


1904 


1000 


61 


1906 


640 


62 



Page. 



Baltimore & Ohio R.R 

Buffalo & Lockport R.R 

Bush Terminal R.R 

Philadelphia & Reading Ry 

Hoboken Shore R.R 

New York Central & H. R. R. R. . 

Michigan Central R.R 

Pennsylvania R.R.: 

Experimental on Long Island . 

New York Terminal Division.. 

Gait, Preston & Hespler Ry 

Illinois Traction Company 

North-Eastern Ry., England 

Metropolitan Ry., England 

Paris-Orleans Ry., France 

Rombacher-Huette Ry., France . 



5 
5 
2 
2 
4 
1 
4 
35 
12 
6 

2 

33 

2 

20 

6 

10 

8 

3 

3 



0-4-4- 
0-4-4- 



0-4-4-0 

0-4-4-0 

0-4-4-0 

0-4-4-0 

0-4-4-0 

2-8-2 

4-8-4 

0-4-4-0 

0-4-4-0 
4-4-4-4 
0-4-4-0 
0-4-4-0 
0-4-^4-0 
0-4-4-0 
0-4-4-0 
0-4-4-0 
0-4-4-0 



303 
304 
306 
307 
308 
309 
309 
310 
310 
318 

321 
322 
329 
330 
331 
332 
332 
332 
334 



Literature on Other Direct-current Locomotives, 335. 

References to Detailed Drawings of Direct-current Locomotives, 336. 



302 



CHAPTER VIII. 

DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES. 
IN GENERAL. 

The number of electric locomotives which use direct -current at 

about 600 volts, which the author has obtained by correspondence and 
from printed lists, in America is 357, and in Europe is 112, of which 52 
are on the City and South London Railway. 

The number of electric locomotives on railroads which use three- 
phase current in America is 4, and in Europe 56. 

The number of electric locomotives which use single-phase current 
in America is 90, and in Europe is about 134. 

The technical descriptions which follow cover only the most important 
and typical installations. The nature of the facts is of importance. 

BALTIMORE & OHIO PASSENGER, 1895. 

Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, in 1895, placed in service 5 gearless 
locomotives, between the Baltimore station yards and Waverly, 3.7 
miles, including the Baltimore Belt line tunnel, 7200 feet long. About 
7 miles of track are electrified. Grades average 1.00 per cent, but the 
ruling grade is 1.5 per cent. Curves included seven, from 5 to 11 de- 
grees. The locomotives are still doing good work. 

The service for which the locomotives were designed was for hauling 
freight and passenger trains over the above route, grades, and curves. 
Three stops are made by the passenger trains in the 3.7-mile run. About 
21 passenger trains are now hauled up the grades per day, but trains 
run down without help from the locomotives. The speed up-grades is 
about 16 m. p. h. The average passenger train, including steam and 
electric locomotive, weighs 990 tons. 

Two trucks are used, each with a wheel base of 6 feet 10 inches. The 
total wheel base is 23 feet 2 inches. The weight on four pairs of 60-inch 
drivers is 96 tons. The locomotive length is 35 feet. 

Motor equipment consists of four General Electric AXB-70, 600-volt 
direct-current motors, rated 1440 h. p. per locomotive. In order to 
reduce the locomotive speed, the motors were designed with 6 poles and 
each pair of motors w^as connected permanently in series. The rating 
with motors in series is 1080. (G. E. bulletin 4390 gives the rated h. p. as 
720.) Gearless armatures are used, spring-suspended on a quill surround- 
ing the axle. The field is spring-supported on the frame, and centered 
around the armature quill by means of bearings. The torque of the 
armature is transmitted from radial arms on the armature shaft to the 
spokes in the drivers, thru rubber compression blocks located at the ends 

303 



304 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



of the radial arms; the arrangement is desirable since it compensates for 
variation in track alignment and provides a flexible connection. See 
Figures 47, 48. 

Tests show that the 96-ton locomotive starts an 1870-ton train from 
rest against such a grade as to require a tractive force of 63,000 pounds, 
or 32 per cent, of the locomotive weight. The drawbars are stretched, 
and the train accelerated to 12 m. p. hr. without slipping the drivers. 




Fig. 84. — Baltimore & Ohio Railkoad Passenger Locomotive used Since 1895. 



The dynamometer car records of drawbar pull show that the amplitude 
of vibrations is, under similar conditions, considerably less than that with 
the changing crank angle of steam locomotives. 

In design, these 5 locomotives, built in 1895, were too fast for freight 
service. It was found that the locomotive wheel base was short, and 
the weight was concentrated. Operating results, for over 16 years, 
have been excellent. These locomotives were the first heavy railroad 
locomotives in America. Their success was remarkable and was of 
great importance historically. 

BALTIMORE & OHIO FREIGHT, 1903. 

Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, in 1903, purchased 5 additional locomo- 
tives for freight service at Baltimore. Each weighs 80 tons and is rated 
800 h. p. Two locomotives are used per train. 

The service for which the 1903 locomotives were designed was to haul 



DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 305 

2300-ton freight trains at a speed of 10 m. p. h.; 1800-ton freight trains 
at 12 m. p. h.; and 500-ton passenger trains at 35 m. p. h. on the level. 

Specifications for the 1903 locomotives required that two units 
should work together normally, and be capable of handling a 1500-ton 
train, including the steam locomotive, but excluding the electric loco- 
motive, on a'maximum grade of 1.5 per cent, at 10 miles per hour, and at 
higher speeds on lighter grades. The locomotive was to have sufficient 
capacity to maintain this service hourly, running loaded on the up-grade 
and returning light. 

Weight of locomotive unit is 160,000 pounds, all on drivers. The 
adhesion at 25 per cent, is 40,000 pounds or 80,000 for the pair. The 




Fig. 85.— Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Freight Locomotives op 1903. 

grade, friction, and acceleration require this maximum drawbar pull, and 
weight for tract ional effort. The weight, 80 tons per unit, is distributed 
over 4 sets of 42-inch drivers. The total and the rigid wheel base of 
each unit is 14 feet 6 3/4 inches, and the wheel base of two units 
is 44 feet 2 3/4 inches. 

Tractive effort at working load and at 8.5 m. p. h. for two units is 
70,000 pounds. These locomotives haul, on an average, 28 freight 
trains per day with an average weight of 1980 tons, on the above grades. 

Motor equipment consists of 4 motors per 80-ton locomotive unit, 
type G. E.-65 B, rated 200 h. p. at 625 volts. Gearing ratio is 81 to 19. 
Sprague-G. E. type M-C. controllers are used to handle two units. 

Operation of these freight locomotives has been successful. 

BALTIMORE & OHIO, igio. 
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, in March, 1910, placed in service two 
additional geared freight locomotives. 
20 



306 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



The service required that 850-ton freight and occasionally 500-ton 
passenger trains should be hauled on the level, at 26 and 30 m. p. h., 
respectively, and up the 11/2 per cent, grade at 15.5 and 20 m. p. h. 

Specifications required that with two units the drawbar effort up to 
15 m. p. h. was to exceed 90,000 pounds. 











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46000 



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46000 



460 OO 



Fig. 87. — Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Locomotive, 1910. 

Two used at Baltimore. 92-ton, 1100-h. p., direct-current, 600-volt. Four motors. Gear ratio 

3.25. Forced ventilation. Freight service. 

Motors are four G. E.-209, 275-h.p., forced ventilated, geared type 
similar to those on the Michigan Central locomotives, to be described. 
The gear ratio is 3.25 and gears are mounted on each wheel hub. 
Four motors weigh 21 tons. See motor drawings, Figure 43. 



DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 307 

Trucks are two, 4-wheeled, permanently linked together with a heavy 
hinge, which allows the two trucks to support and guide one another. 

5 tresses, in pushing and hauling, are transmitted thru the truck framing. 
The trucks are similar to those of the 1909 Michigan Central articulated 
locomotive, described later in great detail. Rigid wheel bases are 9 feet 

6 inches; total wheel base is 27 feet 6 inches; drivers are 50 inches. 
Journals are 7 1/2x14. The two platform center pins have a slight 
longitudinal sliding motion. 

The operator works in the center of the cab, where he has the best com- 
mand of all apparatus, a fair view of the train behind and of a switchman 
at the coupler. 



The service of the 12 locomotives per annum amounts to about 
200,000 locomotive miles, the hauling of 16,000,000 tons, or of 
60,000,000 ton-miles, including electric locomotives, and a total train- 
miles of 66,000. The locomotives work only on the up-grade. 

References on Baltimore & Ohio Locomotives. 

1895: 96-ton, S. R. J., July, 1895; pp. 461 and 827; March 14, 1903; Elec. Engineer, 

Nov. 5, 1895, March 4, 1896. Tests, E. W., March 7, 1896. Motors, S. R. 

J., March 14, 1903; June 25, 1904. 
1903: 160-ton, S. R. J., Aug. 22, 1903; June 25, 1904; Elec. Review, April 26, 1896; 

S. R. J., Feb. 24, 1906; G. E. Bulletin No. 4390. • A. I. E. E., Nov. 20, 1909, 

Davis, in discussion of Dr. Hutchinson's paper. 
1910: 92-ton, E. R. J., Nov. 26, 1910; G. E. Review, Dec, 1910, p. 534. 
See Michigan Central locomotives, which are similar. 

BUFFALO & LOCKPORT. 

Buffalo & Lockport Railway Company, a subsidiary of the Inter- 
national Traction Company, has operated two electric locomotives 
since 1898 in freight service. The road runs from Lockport to North 
Tonawanda, N. Y., 14 miles, and was leased from the Erie Railroad for 
999 years. Electric passenger service is furnished by motor-car trains. 

Locomotives are of the two swivel-truck-type. They were designed 
to haul 10 cars, or a 450-ton trailing load at 14 m. p. h. Locomotives 
have frames of 8-inch channels, 13-foot truck centers, 6-foot truck-wheel 
base, 36-inch drivers, a length of 32 feet, and a weight of 38 tons. Motors 
are four G. E.-55, rated 160-h. p. each. A 3.28 gear ratio is used. Each 
pair of motors runs in series on a 600-volt direct-current circuit. 

Reference. S. R. J., Sept., 1898, p. 535. See motors, Figure 30. 

BUSH TERMINAL RAILROAD. 

Bush Terminal Railroad of South Brooklyn since 1904 has employed 
a 50-ton locomotive for switching at its extensive docks and warehouses. 



308 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 




Ficj. 88. — Buffalo and Lockport Freight Unit. Two used Since 1898. 




Fig. 89. — Busii Terminal Railroad Freight Locomotive, 



DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 309 

Two swivel trucks are used, with equalized side-bar frames similar to 
those in general use for coal-tender trucks of steam locomotives. The 
bolsters are carried rigidly on the side frames, the weight being trans- 
mitted thru one semi-elliptic spring on each side. Axles are 6-inch, 
drivers are 33-inch. Rigid wheel bases are 6 feet 6 inches; total wheel 
base 22 feet; and total length 30 feet. 

Motors consist of four 90-h. p., 2-turn, direct-current, 500-volt units, 
with a 2.47 gear ratio. A pantograph trolley is used to prevent frequent 
reversals, in switching service. 

In 1907, and in 1911, locomotives of the same type were purchased. 
These are 40-ton machines with the same size of motor. The gear ratio 
is 3.53 and the drivers 36 inches. Weight of electrical equipment is 
14 tons. 

Performance characteristics for the 1904 machine show a tractive 
effort of 20,000 pounds at 9 m. p. h., with 800 amperes at 500 volts, and 
8000 pounds at 12 m. p. h. wdth 450 amperes; and for the 1907 locomotive, 
a tractive effort of 16,800 pounds at 8 m. p. h., with 625 amperes at 500 
volts, and 12,000 pounds at 9 m. p. h., with 475 amperes. 

Reference. G. E. bulletins 4390 and 4537; G. E. Review, Nov., 1907. 

PHILADELPHIA & READING. 

Philadelphia & Reading Railway in 1904 placed an electric locomotive 
in service on its 7-mile branch road from Cape May Point to Sewell 
Point, New Jersey, for freight and passenger service. The locomotive 
was built by the Baldwin Locomotive Works. 

Weight of locomotive is 20 tons, all on drivers. Frames are of steel 
channels, heavily braced. The length over end sills is 23 feet. Two 
swivel trucks are used, each with a 6-foot base. Truck centers are 12 
feet. Drivers are 30-inch. 

Motors are 4, Westinghouse, 38-B., 50-h.p., geared 68 to 14. Con- 
trol is AVestinghouse, type K-14. Automatic and straight air are used. 

Reference. S. R. J., Description and photograph, Nov. 5, 1904, p. 841. 

HOBOKEN SHORE R. R. 

Hoboken Shore Railroad since 1898 has operated an extensive freight 
terminal at Hoboken, N. J. There are 10 miles of electrically operated 
single track. The freight handled comes from the Lackawanna, Erie, 
West Shore, Pennsylvania, and Lehigh Valley roads. It is collected and 
distributed to industrial sidings, freight warehouses, and to extensive 
steamship docks on the Hudson River. 

Four geared, swivel-truck, direct-current, electric locomotives are 



310 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



used. The service consists of switching and shunting 100 to 150 cars 
per 10-hour day. Mileage per locomotive per day averages 130. 

The G. E. 1898 locomotive has two McGuire trucks, 40-inch drivers 
10,000-pound drawbar pull at 8 m. p. h., weighs 28 tons, and is rated 
560 h. p. A 4- wheeled G. E. locomotive, built in 1900, is no longer used. 

The Westinghouse 1906 locomotive has Baldwin trucks, 33-inch 
drivers, 15,000-pound drawbar pull at 6 m. p. h., weighs 64 tons, and is 




Fig. 90. — Hoboken Shore Freight Switching Locomotive. 
64-toii, 400-h. p., Westinghouse unit used since 1906. 

rated 400 h. p. This is a modern unit. It hauls 800-ton trains up 1 1/2 
per cent, grades and around sharp curves. 

The G. E. 1911 locomotive has American trucks, 42-inch drivers, and 
weighs 80 tons. 

C. de Bevoise, Manager, states that the repairs and renewals on 
these locomotives during the last three years have been $55 for a new pair 
of wheels, and $12 for brushes and commutator turning. 

Reference. E. W., Jan. 8, 1898; Elec. Review, July 2, 1910. 



NEW YORK CENTRAL. 

New York Central & Hudson River Railroad, since Dec, 1906, has 
operated 35 electric locomotives, and, in 1908, added 12 locomotives, 
making the total number 47. All New York Central trains in and out 



DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 



311 



of the Grand Central Station have been electrically operated since July 
1, 1907. 

Specifications of contract with General Electric Co., required that: 

Cars weighing 450 tons be hauled from Grand Central Station to Croton, 34 
miles, in 60 minutes; there to have a 20-minute layover, and then return to Grand 
Central Station with a similar train, making one stop in each straight trip. 

Cars weighing 335 tons (Empire State Express) be hauled over the same distance, 
34 miles, in 44 minutes, then to have a 60-minute layover, then to return to Grand 
Central Station with a similar train, then to have a layover of 60 minutes, and to 
keep this service up continually. 

Cars weighing 300 tons be hauled over the same distance, 34 miles, in 60 minutes, 
making 3 stops, with a layover at the end of each 34 miles, of 60 minutes; and this 
cycle to be operated continually. 

Two locomotives were to haul a total train weight, including locomotives of 
875 tons at a maximum speed of 65 miles per hour. Temperatures, measured by 
thermometers, to be within A. I. E. E. limits. Acceleration rate to be to 40 m. p. h. 
in 121 seconds, or 0.33 m. p. h. p. s.; braking to be at 1.5 m. p. h. p. s. 

The service for which the locomotives were designed was for passenger 
work at the New York terminal. Trains are now hauled north from the 
Grand Central Station, in terminal and switching service, on the 




Fig. 91. — New York Central Locomotive. 
Drawing of proposed locomotive, 1905. 



Harlem Branch, to the Mott Haven storage yards, a distance of 5.1 
miles; in express service, to High Bridge on the Hudson Division, a dis- 
tance of 7.1 miles; and in express service on the Harlem Division, to 
North White Plains, a distance of 24 miles. The run on the last division 
is for light trains. The service is not trunk-line work, since the dis- 
tances are short. The locomotives are able to work in excess of their 
rating, since they have ample time to cool off. At all times, including 
the heaviest service for the Hudson-Fulton celebration, October, 1909; 



312 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



and on July 4, 1910, there were more electric locomotives than were 
needed for the work. 

The design of the locomotives is clue to Mr. Batchelder of the General 
Electric Company, who created a gearless machine. 

''The previously accepted principle of fixity of relation between field 
and armature was abandoned, the latter being mounted directly on the 
axle and the fields being carried upon and as an integral part of the loco- 
motive frame, supported by its springs and hence moving freely, irre- 
spective of the armature. Gears and axle bearings are dispensed with, 
and the acme of simplicity of motor construction reached. The armature 
of course could be spring borne." Sprague, to A. I. E. E., Jan. 25, 1907. 

The gearless motor design is somewhat similar to that used in 1897 for the 
Paris-Lyon-Mediterranean electric locomotive. See detailed drawings in E. W., 
Feb. 4, 1899. 

The wheel arrangement, the base, and the locomotive weight have 
been changed in design, as noted in the next table. 

MODIFICATIONS IN NEW YORK CENTRAL ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 

DESIGN. 



Tons 


Tons on 


Wheel 


Wheel 


Year. 


Reference or notes on 


total. 


drivers. 


base. 


class. 


modifications. 


85 


67 


27 


2-6-2 


1904 


Wilgus, S.R.J., Oct. 8, 1904, p. 584. 


85 


65 


27 


2-6-2 


1904 


Sprague, S.R.J., Oct. 8, 1904. 


95 


69 


27 


2-6-2 


1904 


S.R.J., Nov. 19, 1904. 


95 


68 


27 


2-&-2 


1906 


G.E. bulletin 4390. 


100 


70 


27 


2-6-2 


1907 


S.R.J., May 13, 1905, p. 867. 
Heater, added to 35 locoomotives. 
G.E. bulletin 4537. 


105 


71 


29 


4-6-4 


1908 


Four truck wheels added. S.R.J., 
Dec. 19, 1908, p. 1620. 


115 


72 


36 


4-6-4 


1909 


Change in wheel base and frame for 
12 new locomotives. Drive-wheel 
base, 13 feet, not changed. 



The speed for which the locomotives of the 2-6-2 wheel arrangement 
were designed was 60 m. p. h., but the locomotives were not safe at or 
beyond that speed, even on the good track and curves in the New York 
Central electric zone. The locomotives showed true nosing characteristics, 
at high speed until, in 1908, the 2-whefel radial pony trucks were changed 
to 4-wheel swivel bogey trucks, or to the 4-6-4 wheel arrangement. Too 
much motive power was concentrated on the 13-foot rigid wheel base. 



DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 313 

The total wheel base was increased from 27 to 36 feet. Care was taken to 
keep the side-motion friction plates adjusted, to limit the nosing effect. 
A disastrous wreck occurred in March, 1907, when two locomotives were 




Fig. 92. — New York Central Locomotive. 
Longitudinal section of the 1906 type. 



hauling a train at high speed, and since that time two locomotives have 
not been used to haul one train. 

The speed is now limited by the operating rules to 45 m. p. h. on 
straight track and 30 m. p. h. on curves. 




Fig. 9.3. — New York Central & Hudson River Railroad Locomotive, 1908. 



Motors consist of four, GE-84-A, gearless, 600-volt units per loco- 
motive, rated 762 amperes each on the 1-hour rating. The accelerating 
current is 830 amperes. The locomotive rating is 2200 h. p. at 40 m. p. h. 



314 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



and 20,500 pounds tractive effort with 44-incli drivers. The continuous 
rating is given as 1166 h.p. by Sprague, 1200 h.p. by Hutchinson, and 
920 h. p. by Gibbs. Forced ventilation is not yet used. 




Fig. 94. — New York Central, & Hudson River Railroad Locomotive, 1906. 

The armature is placed directly upon the axle. The magnetic frames, carrying 
two pole pieces per motor, are part of the truck frame. The poles have nearly 
vertical faces and the armature has a large free vertical movement in a practically 
uniform clearance, without striking the poles. 




Fig. 95. — New York Central & Hudson River Railroad Locomotive, 1909. 



Weight of the motors is 37,700 pounds, plus 11,900 pounds for the magnet yoke, 
which is also the mechanical frame of the locomotive, making the total motor weight 
•49,600 pounds. To this is to be added 18,400 pounds for control equipment, rheo- 
stats, and wiring, and 4300 for air compressor. Total electrical weight, 36 tons or 



DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 315 

about 31.4 per cent, of the total weight, 115 tons. Each armature and 8.5-inch 
axle weigh 7640 pounds. The core is 29 inches in diameter and 19 inches wide. 
This dead weight is not spring-mounted, but it is not unbalanced, as in the drivers 
of a steam locomotive. The total weight per driver axle is 36,000 pounds. The 
dead weight per axle is 13,000 pounds, to be compared with 7000 to 13,000 pounds 
for steam locomotives. 




21500 



2I500 36000 360OO 36000 3600O 



2I300 



21500 



Fig. 96. — New York Central & Hudson River Railroad Locomotive, 1908-1909. 

Forty-seven used on New York Division in passenger service. 115-ton, 2200-h. p., direct-current, 

600-volts. 4 gearless motors. Axle mounted. Natural ventilation. 

Gearless motors in this passenger locomotive service embody sim- 
plicity, strength, high efficiency, low maintenance cost, ease of inspection, 
and facility in making repairs. The armature with its wheels and axle 
can be removed, by lowering it, without disturbing the fields. The 
motor is neither waterproof nor enclosed, yet it does not hold water as in 
some enclosed types with forced ventilation. 

Center of gravity of the locomotive was at first 44.4 inches above the 
rails; with the addition of the four leading wheels, it is now about 40 
inches above the rails. The locomotive mass cannot swing, but must 
follow the rapid variations in the track, and the vertical and side springs 
which are used cannot ease the blow on the track. The cost of track 
and curve maintenance may therefore be much higher than usual. 

Tests on No. 6000, 95-ton; 8-coach train, 336 tons, total 431 tons. 

Nov. 12, 1904: Accelerating rate 0.33 m. p. h. p. s. required 1200 kw. 
at motor; voltage was 730; speed reached 63 m. p. h. in 280 seconds. 

Apr. 29, 1905: Locomotive and one 42-ton coach attained a speed of 
79 miles per hour. Acceleration rate with 6 coaches was 0.4 m. p. h. p. s. ; 
voltage not specified. 

Sept. 30, 1905: Acceleration of a 433-ton train, to 50 m. p. h., with 
600 volts pressure, was at the rate of 0.43m. p. h. p. s. 



316 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



October, 1905: Endurance test of 50,000 miles, hauling a train of 200 
to 400 tons, over a 6-mile track. Maintenance expense, $0,014 per mile. 

COST OF OPERATION, STEAM AND ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES. WILGUS. 



Item. 


Steam locomotive. 


Electric locomotive. 


Switching. 


Transfer. 


Road. 


Switching. 


Transfer. 


Road. 


Supplies 

Wages 

Interest, dep. and 
repairs. 
Total 


$8.06 
5.34 
7.61 

21.01 


$1.12 
0.35 
0.52 

1.99 


$2.03 
0.28 
0.46 

2.77 


$6.88 
5.25 
4.40 

16.53 


$1.16 
0.31 

0.28 

1.75 


$1.37 
0.31 
0.34 

2.02 







COST PER YEAR FOR SERVICE. 



Item. 



Steam locomotive. 



Cost. 



Rate. 



Amount. 



Electric locomotive. 



Cost. 



Rate. Amount. 



Interest 

Depreciation . . 

Repairs 

Handling and 
inspection. 
Total 



$15,000 



4.25% 
5.00 



$637.00 

750.00 

1842.00 

1231.00 

4,460.00 



$30,000 


4.25% 
5.00 


1 











$1275.00 

1500.00 

704.00 

200 . 00 

3,679.00 



Based on actual observations running over two to three years. 

Tests for above, September and October, 1907. Wilgus, A. S. C. E., March, 1908. 



PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVES. 



Current 
amperes. 


Speed 
m.p.h. 


Tractive 
effort lbs. 


Power 
h.p. 


Notes and conditions. 

■ 


4000 


37.0 


28,800 


2840 


Four motors in multiple. 


3050 


40.0 


20,500 


2200 


One-hour h.p. 2200. 


2000 


48.0 


11,200 


1440 


Volts, 600. 


1500 


57.0 


6,700 


1000 


Continuous h.p., 1000. 


1250 


63.0 


5,000 


840 


Drivers 44-inch. 


1000 


73.0 


3,750 


730 


G.E. bulletins 4390 and 4537. 



DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 



317 



Comparison of New York Central electric locomotives with steam 
locomotives of a corresponding age and type: 

. % 

Greater daily ton-mileage with electric locomotive 25 

Saving in locomotive repairs about 60 

Saving in locomotive repairs and fixed charges 19 

Saving in dead time for repairs and inspections 18 

Saving in locomotive ton-mileage in hauling service 6 

Saving in locomotive ton-mileage in switching service 11 

Saving in locomotive ton-mileage in road service 16 

Net saving in cost of hauling service 12 

Net saving in cost of switching service 21 

Net saving in cost of road service 27 

Net saving of terminal and yard operation, August, 1907 13 



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Fig. 97. — New York Central Locomotive and Seven-car Train. 



" In switching service, the economy of electric traction lies in savings for supplies, 
and in lower unit fixed charges and repairs due to less lost time for repairs and care. 

"In slow-speed hauling, the advantages lie in the lower unit fixed charges and 
repairs of the electric locomotive, due to its ability to do more work while busy, and 
to less lost time for repairs and care. 

" High-speed road service shows advantages for electric traction in all three 
items; supplies, wages, and fixed charges and repairs. The small 18 per cent increase 
in current consumption for the greater speed of road service, as compared with haul- 
ing service, is in marked contrast to the 165 per cent, increase in coal consumption for 
steam locomotives. 

" The handUng and inspection, including fixed charges and maintenance of land, 
structures, boiler, engine, and pumping plant for steam locomotives cost $3.37 per 
day, while the same items for the electric locomotive which requires no roundhouse 
nor pumping plant to wash out flues, etc., but with its inspection sheds, cost but 
SO. 55 per day. 



318 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

" Opportunities for large economies lie in the thoro training of motormen in the 
manipulation of their controllers, a very simple problem as compared with the 
difficulties of teaching both the engineer and firemen on steam locomotives to per- 
form their duties so as to result in fuel economy." Wilgus: A. S. C. E., March, 1908. 

Economic results also noted by Vice-President Wilgus: 

"The net results of electrical operation over steam, for the conditions existing on 
the New York Central, would, after including all elements of cost of additional plant, 
show a saving in the summer months of from 12 to 27 per cent., depending upon the 
character of the service, while even a larger saving might be expected under winter 
conditions; that because of less cost of maintenance of electric equipment and less 
idle time in the repair shops, the greater cost of extra charges and depreciation for the 
system was not only neutralized, but a net saving of 19 per cent, on repairs and fixed 
charges over steam equipment was effected; that electric-locomotive inspection and 
lighter repairs, as compared with coaling, watering, drawing fires, etc., of steam loco- 
motives showed a saving in time in favor of eectiicity of more than 4 hours per 
day, equal to 18 per cent.; and that the electric locomotive, when busy, was a much 
more nimble and efficient machine than the steam locomotive, showing an increase 
in daily ton-mileage of 25 per cent. The question of locomotive weight is a large 
factor in a comparison of relative economies in handling passenger traffic by steam and 
by electricity, and in the switch service at the Grand Central terminal 65 per cent, 
of the total steam ton-mileage was due to locomotive or dead weight, while the electric 
locomotive percentage was but 54 per cent." Martin, U. S. Census, 1907. 

Mileage of electric locomotives in 1910 approximated 1,190,000 
miles, or only 64 miles per day per locomotive owned. The suburban 
passenger service is handled largely by motor-car trains, the mileage 
of which in 1908 was 3,500,000 car-miles. 

References on New York Central Locomotives. 

Potter and Arnold: Steam Locomotive Tests, A. I. E. E., June, 1902. 

Proposed Locomotives: S. R. J., June 4, 1904. 

Controversy on System and Cost: Mr. Westinghouse, Mr. Sprague, and others, S. R. J., 

and E. W., Oct. and Dec, 1905; Ry. Gazette, Dec. 22, 1905, p. 579. 
Electric Locomotive Tests: S. R. J., Nov. 19, 1904; Jan. 21, 1905; May 13, 1905. 
Locomotive Catechism and Operating Rules: S. R. J., Oct. 12, 1907, p. 565. 
Wilgus: Steam versus Electric Power, S. R. J., Oct., 1904; A. I. E. E., Nov., 1907. 
Locomotive Data: Ry. Age, June 30 and Nov. 18, 1904; Jan. 26, 1906. 
Accident and Cause: S. R. J., March 16 and 30, 1907; Scientific American, March 

April, and May, 1907; Shearing of Spikes, E. W., March 16, 1907, p.- 539. 
Lister: Handling of Equipment, Ry. Age Gazette, June 3, 1910. 

MICHIGAN CENTRAL. 

Michigan Central Railroad since July, 1910, has used six 100-ton 
electric locomotives between the Windsor, Ontario, yards and the 
Detroit yards. A double-track tunnel under the Detroit River, with 
grades of 1.4 and 2.0 per cent, for 2000 feet at each end of the tunnel, 
connects these yards. The length of the electric zone is 6, and the 
mileage is 19. 



DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 319 

Specifications called for locomotives for freight and passenger service 
in the tunnel, and for switching service at the terminal yards. Two 
locomotives w^ere to haul an 1800-ton trailing train thru the yards and 
tunnels and up a 4000-foot, 2 per cent, grade at 10 m. p. h., then after a 
layover of 15 minutes to repeat this trip, and so on continually without 
undue heating of motors. 

Design is of the articulated type with two 4-wheeled, coupled trucks, 
48-inch drivers, a rigid wheel base of 9.5 feet, and a total base of 27.5 feet. 
The trucks are not independent, but form a single arti<iulated running gear. 




Fig. 98. — Michigan Central Railroad Locomotive of 1910. 



"The system of spring suspension is of the locomotive type, the weight being 
carried on semi-elliptic springs resting on the journal box saddles. The system of 
equalization by which these springs are connected is interesting. The A end of the 
running gear, or what may be called the forward truck, is side-equalized, the two 
springs on each side being connected together through an equalizer beam. This 
equalizes the distribution of weight between the two wheels on one side, giving to this 
truck a 2-point support, and consequently leaving it in a condition of unstable 
equilibrium as regards tilting stresses — that is, stresses tending to tip the truck for- 
ward or backward. The B end of the running gear, or what may be called the rear 
truck of the locomotive, is cross-equalized, the two springs on the rear axle being 
connected together through an equalizer beam. The other two springs on this truck 
are independent and are connected directly to the truck frame. This results in a 
3-point suspension on the rear truck, leaving it in a condition of stable equilibrium, 
capable of resisting stresses in any direction, whether rolling or tilting. The 
trucks are coupled together by a massive hinge, so designed as to enable the rear 
truck to resist any tilting tendency of the forward truck. This hinge combines the 
trucks into a single articulated running gear, having lateral flexibility with 



320 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



vertical rigidity. Thus the running gear has what may be called a compound 
point suspension, while the forward and rear trucks together form an articulated 
frame having a 3-point suspension, consisting of the 2-point support of the forward 
truck and the independent equalization of the rear truck. 

The draft rigging consists of a standard M. C. B. vertical plane coupler, with yoke, 
springs^ and follower plates, designed to comply with the railroad company's specifi- 
cations." E. R. J., June 19, 1909. 




Fig. 99. — Michigan Central Railroad. Elevation of 1910 Locomotive. 

Motors per locomotive are 4, direct-current, 600-volt, 400-ampere 
G.E. 209-A, commutating-pole units. One-hour rating is 275 h. p. each, 
with a forced ventilation, at 2 1/4 inches water-gage pressure, of 400 cubic 
feet per minute. The continuous rating is about 123 h. p. Design of 
motor embraces 4 main poles, interpoles, a 3/ 16-inch air-gap, an armature 
diameter of 25 inches, a core length of 11.5 inches, with forty-one 




Fig. 100. 



-Michigan Central Railroad. Electric Locomotive at Detroit River Tunnel 
Hauling 1400-ton Freight Train. 



2x5 /8-inch slots, for five 1-turn coils per slot, and .8x. 08-inch conductors. 
Commutator diameter is 22.5 inches, segments 205, brush studs 2, and 
brushes three 2 1/4x2 1/2x1 1/16-inch per stud. Pinions are placed at 
each end of the armature shaft and there is a 4.37 reduction ratio. 
Efficiency of motor including gear loss, at 12 m. p. h., 390 amperes, 



DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 321 

and 600 volts, is 86 per cent.; it raises to a maximum of 88 per cent, at 
14 m. p. h. and lowers to 83 per cent, at 10.5 m. p. h. Resistance of 
motor at 75° C. is 0.1 ohm. See motor drawings, Figure 43. 

Controllers are Sprague-General Electric. Two or more locomotives 
are controlled from either end of any cab. Acceleration provided is 
particularly uniform, to prevent breaking the drawbars on ordinary 50- 
car freight trains. The motors are used 4 in series, 2 in series and 
2 in parallel, or 4 in parallel. There are 9 resistance steps in series, 8 in 
series-parallel, and 7 in parallel. 

Weight of armature is 3000; magnet frame, 3000; 4 main poles and 
spools, 1000; 4 interpoles and spools, 500 pounds; motor complete, 
10,200; and with gear case 11,600 pounds; electrical equipment, 32 tons; 
dead weight per axle, 7 tons. Locomotive weight, 100 tons. 

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF MICHIGAN CENTRAL 
LOCOMOTIVES. 



Current 
amperes. 



Speed 
m.p.h. 



Tractive 
effort lb. 



Power 
H.p. 



Notes or conditions. 



2400 

2100 

1600 

1200 

1000 

900 

835 

720 

550 

440 

400 



10.7 


56,000 


11.0 


48,000 


11.8 


35,000 


13.0 


24,000 


14.0 


18,800 


14.5 


16,000 


15.0 


14,400 


16.0 


11,500 


18.0 


7,200 


20.0 


4,900 


21.0 


4,000 



1600 
1410 
1100 
830 
700 
620 
575 
490 
345 
260 
225 



Forced ventilation. 
Volts 600. 
One-hour h.p. 1100. 



Drivers 48-inch. 
Gear ratio 4.37. 



Continuous h.p. 490. 



Four G.E-209 motors. 



. Baltimore & Ohio 1910 locomotives use this motor and gear, and 50-inch drivers. 

References: Drawings in E. W., April 18, 1908; E. R. J., May 18, 1907; March 28, 
1908; June 19, 1909; Jan. 14 and 21, 1911. 



PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD— EXPERIMENTAL. 



Pennsylvania Railroad Company in 1905 and 1907 ordered from the 
Westinghouse Company direct-current locomotives No. 10001 and No. 
10002, a geared and a gearless type respectively. They were at first 
used on the Long Island Railroad and on the West Jersey and Seashore 
Railroad, for testing purposes, in freight and passenger haulage, and also 
in high-speed service. The design was a symmetrical swivel truck type. 

21 



322 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Weight of the geared unit was 87 tons, and of the gearless, 97 tons. 
Rigid wheel base, 8.5 feet; total wheel base, 26 feet; drivers 56-inch. 

Motors were two per locomotive, direct-current, 600-volt, rated 300 
and 320 h. p. The gearless motor weight was 11,500 pounds and the 
armature weight 5300 pounds. Natural ventilation was used. 




Fig. 101. — Pennsylvania Railroad Experimental Locomotive of 1905. 

On test, at speeds above 45 m. p. h., the two-swivel -truck wheel 
arrangement was not safe, and track destruction was evidenced. Tests 
were continued with unsymmetrical trucks. See alternating-current 
locomotive, page 357. 

References. S. R. J., Feb. 24, 1906, and Oct. 12, 1907, p. 602, plate XXI. 

PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD, 19 lo. 

Pennsylvania Railroad Company placed in service in 1910 at its New 
York Terminal Division, 24 direct-current, 157-ton, 4-4-4-4 type loco- 
motives. Cabs, running gear, and mechanical parts were built by the 
Company, while the electrical equipment was Westinghouse. In 1911, 
nine duplicate locomotives were placed in service. 

The electric zone in which these locomotives run extends 12 miles 
east from Newark, New Jersey, and thru two tunnels to the terminal in 
Manhattan, thence on east 4 miles and thru two tunnels to Long Island 



DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 



323 



City and to Simnyside terminal yards beyond. The New York Connecting- 
Railroad will make connections to the New Haven road via the Harlem 
River yards. Montauk Point trains between the New York terminal 
and points 25 miles east, on Long Island, are handled by electric loco- 
motives; while motor-car train service, thru two other tunnels between 
Manhattan and Long Island, is handled by the Long Island Railroad. 
Motor-car train service between Newark, or Manhatten Transfer, and 
Jersey City, over Pennsylvania tracks, is handled by the Hudson and 
Manhattan Railroad. Sunnyside yards have 73 miles of tracks. 

The service includes the handling by electric locomotives of about 
88 thru passenger trains per day in the above electric zone. 

Specifications outlined by the Pennsylvania Railroad locomotive 
committee, George Gibbs, A. W. Gibbs, D. F. Crawford, and A. S. Vogt, 
called for a 2-motor, double American-type articulated locomotive, 
which would start and accelerate a 550-ton trailing load (9 Pullmans) on 2 




Fig. 102. — Pennsylvania Railroad 157-ton Locomotive of 1910. 



per cent, tunnel grades. It was to have a guaranteed tractive effort of 
00,000 pounds for one-half minute and 50,000 pounds for two minutes. 
(On test a dynamometer between the locomotive and a train, with some 
brakes set, showed a drawbar pull of 79,200 pounds or 39 per cent, of 
the weight on the drivers.) The normal speed, with load on the level, 
was to be 60 m. p. h., yet the locomotive was to be safe at 80 m. p. h., 
for use on a New York-Philadelphia run. Tests called for acceleration 
of trains on a 2 per cent, grade with one motor cut out. Controllers 
were required to carry as high as 7000 amperes at GOO volts. 

Weight of the locomotive is 314,000 pounds of which 200,000 pounds, 
or 64 per cent., are carried by 4 sets of 72-inch drivers, and 114,000 
pounds by 4 sets of 36-inch bogie wheels, 



324 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



D D uj:k\ d 



I 



W)'.G)'~ 




D [Z^M Q Q 




^^OiC^ I 



[<4'64 6-7^^3-10^5-6 



J 



-19-9^- 
-23-1 



+-€^. 



29300 29300 4-9200 4-920O 4-9200 49200 29300 2930O. 

Fig. 103. — Pennsylvania Railroad Locomotive op 1910. 

Thirty-three used at New York terminal. 157-ton, 2500-h. p., direct-current, 660-volt3. Two 

motors, side-rod type. Crank diameter 26 inches. Natural ventilation. Passenger service. 




Fig. 104. — Pennsylvania Railroad. Front Elevation of Locomotive. 



DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 325 

In general the locomotive is built in two sections, with two symmetri- 
cal running gears, joined at the middle with a permanent coupling of 
twin drawbars and friction draft gears so designed that the leading half 
serves to guide the trailer, and opposes any buckling action of halves. 

Mechanical connections are made by means of rods between cranks 
on the ends of the armature shaft of the motor and cranks on a jackshaft, 
which is mounted on the frames in the same plane as the driving axles. 





Fig. 



105. — Pennsylvania Railroad. Running Gear op Locomotive. 
The two motors are mounted on the truck frames. 



Cranks are necessary, with the great length of the armature shaft used. 
The fixed distance between the center line of the jackshaft and the motor 
is 7 feet 2 inches. The jackshaft cranks connect to cranks on the drivers 
by means of 6-foot side rods. The cranks are in quartered positions, 
and counterbalanced. Connecting side rods, which run from the crank 
to the two drivers, have the adjustable heads employed on the Penn- 
sylvania class E-3 steam locomotive. 

Trucks are two, of the articulated type. Truck wheel bases are G feet 
7 inches; rigid driver wheel bases, 7 feet 2 inches; wheel base of each half, 



326 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

23 feet 1 inch; total wheel base, 55 feet 1 1 inches. Locomotive length over 
all is 65 feet. 

The center of gravity is 64 inches above the rail. 

Frames are of cast steel and of sufficient strength to allow the engine 
to be raised by jacks applied at fixed points, with all pedestal binders 
removed. The side frames are broad, and furnish bases for the feet of 
the electric motor frames, which fit over the heavy flanged top members of 
the side frames. The frames are proportioned for a bump equivalent to 
the static load of 500,000 pounds (150,000 pounds applied on the center 
line of draft cylinders and 350,000 pounds applied on the center line of 
platform buffers) which is to produce no stress in the frames exceeding 
12,000 pounds per square inch. 

Motors consist of two direct-current interpole units per locomotive. The 
1-hour rating on 600 volts and 1350 amperes is 1000 h. p. with natural ventilation; 
on 660 volts and 1525 amperes is 1250 h. p.; and the continuous rating on 660 volts 
and 1070 amperes is 800 h. p. Motors are guaranteed to handle the tunnel and 
terminal service and train weights on the grade, with given layover periods. Two 
motors can develop 4000 h. p. for 30 minutes. The intermittent character of the 
service calls for a root-mean-square all-day load of 1600 amperes at 400 volts, at 
which load the rise in temperature will not exceed 60° C. 

The armature is 56 inches in diameter, and the core is 23 inches wide. The speed 
at 60 m.p.h. is 280 r.p.m. The armature core is so mounted on the spider that in case 
of a short circuit or flash-over, between the brush holders, which would act as an 
electric brake on the armature, the core will slip on an adjustable clutch on the arma- 
ture spider, and prevent the destruction of crank pins or locomotive driving mechan- 
ism. Bearings do not extend under the commutator or under the armature windings, 
and caps may be lifted vertically. The center line of the motor armature is 25 1/2 
inches above the cab floor, and 93 1/2 inches above the rail, and thus the motor is 
secure from snow, dirt, and water. Space limitations are largely removed and the 
design possesses excellent mechanical and electrical features. The motor shaft 
extends well across the width of the cab giving room for ample bearing length. 
The motor frames are cast-steel shells, divided horizontally. Natural ventilation is 
used. Each motor weighs complete, with the crank, 45,000 pounds and the armature 
weighs 10,950 pounds. See figure 49. 

Controllers of the electro-pneumatic switch type, i. e., actuated by 
air from the brake compressor and operated by electro-magnets, are 
placed at each end of the cab. The main power does not pass thru the 
controllers or the cab. Three speeds are called for in control, a slow 
speed for switching operations, half speed, and full speed. The bridging 
scheme is used for passing from series to multiple connection. Motor 
fields are reversed to change the direction of motion. 

Field control is used on the two motors in addition to the series- 
multiple grouping, and a large saving is thus effected in resistors. During 
acceleration the power consumption is reduced to 55 per cent, of what it 
would be without field control. The design of the poles is such that 



DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 327 

each is wound in 2 sections, the full field being shunted for high speed. 
The change from full field to normal field increases the speed 65 per cent, 
and reduces the tractive effort 39 per cent., the motor horse power being 




Fig. 106. — Pennsylvania Railroad Locomotive and Eight-car Train. 




Fig. 107. — Locomotive Hauling the New York-Chicago, 18-hour, "Pennsylvania Special.' 



at 1000. A motor load of 1250 h. p. is developed with the normal field 
without appreciable sparking; and, when running at 70 m. p. h., on 725 
volts, with normal field, the opened and closed circuits caused by gaps 
in the third rails do not cause spitting at the brushes. 



328 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



Switches and control devices must handle, very heavy current inputs, 
commonly 7000 amperes at 660 volts and in emergency as high as 9000 
amperes. Power-plant switchboards seldom handle such heavy currents 
and they are never operated so many times as on a locomotive. The 
efficiency of these switches, which are able to rupture the entire current, 
is remarkable. Altho the noise somewhat resembles the report of a 
pistol, there is hardly a flash on the arcing tips. 

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PENNSYLVANIA 
LOCOMOTIVES. 
Volts, 600; drivers, 72-inch; air gap, 9/16-inch; crank diameters, 26 inches; motors 
in parallel; transmission losses not included. Data from Westinghouse publication; 
Electric Journal; articles by George Gibbs, J. L. Davis; and other sources. 



Speed 


Current 


Power 


Efficiency 


Tractive effort 


Field 


m.p.h. 


amperes. 


h.p. 


p.c. 


pounds. 


winding. 





7000 






79,200 


Full. 


24 


6400 


4400 


85.0 


69,000 


Full. 


25 


5700 


4000 


87.0 


60,000 


Full. 


26 


4700 


3360 


89.0 


48,000 


Full. 


31.5 


2700 


2000 


92.2 


24,000 


Full. 


36 


2050 


1540 


93.0 


16,000 


Full. 


40 


4200 


3100 


92.0 


29,400 


Normal. 


44 


3500 


2600 


93.0 


22,000 


Normal. 


50 


2800 


2120 


93.5 


16,000 


Normal. 


52 


2650 


2000 


93.5 


14,600 


Normal. 


60 


2100 


1600 


93.5 


10,000 


Normal. 


70 


1700 


1280 


93.0 


7,000 


Normal. 


76 


1500 


1120 


92.5 


5,500 


Normal. 



Operating voltage is 660, on which there is 10 per cent, greater speed and power. 

Service during 1910 has shown the following: 

Work on the tunnel grades is severe, and at high speed the air resistance in the 
long tubes is excessive. 

Locomotive loads of 10 cars in switching and storage service, and 13 cars in 
regular passenger trains have been hauled. 

Clutches between the armature core and the spider of the motor are set to slip 
at 3500 amperes per motor, and when they have shpped they have caused no delay. 

Acceleration often requires 2700 amperes. 

The rear haK of the locomotive does not seem to articulate well with the front 
half. Some action tends to lift the rear half from the tracks. 

In acceleration the wheels seem to spin readily on the rear half. 

Vibration of the entire locomotive is excessive, and has caused a great deal of 
breakage at wire terminals, couphngs, and unions; loosening of the tightest bolts 
and nuts; breaking of rheostat grids; loosening of contactor fingers; shaking off of 
train Hne control jumpers; and opening of joints at heavy electrical connections. 



, 



DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 



329 



Jackshaft design has not been satisfactory. The weight of the counterbalance 
has been increased, but the jackshaft persists in pounding. The jackshaft bearings 
and hnings have also given trouble. 

Smooth running has not been obtained. The locomotives are known as rollers 
and pitchers and have many of the qualities of modern steam locomotives in heavy 
high-speed-service. 



References. 

E. R. J., Nov. 6, 1909; Ry. Age, Nov. 5, 1909. 
Scientific American, Dec. 18^ 1909. 
Kirker: Electric Journal, Sept., 1910. 
Gibbs: E. R. J., June 3, 1911, p. 960. 



^. 




Fig. 108. — Galt, Preston & Hespler Locomotive, 1910. 



GALT, PRESTON & HESPLER. 

Gait, Preston & Hespler Railway locomotive is a good representative 
light-weight, inexpensive unit of the two-swivel-truck type with four 
100-h.p., 50-ton, geared, 600- volt, direct-current motors, for light 
freight train service between small cities. Scores of similar locomotives 
are used by interurban railways. 

ILLINOIS TRACTION. 

Illinois Traction Company has built about G locomotives per year since 
1 907 for its freight service in Illinois where it has about 560 miles of track. 

The locomotives are of the 2-truck, swivel type, and resemble a 
common baggage car. They weigh 40 tons to 60 tons, and have a length 



330 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



of 31 to 34 feet. Eight 36-inch drivers are used. Trucks and motors are 
purchased, but the locomotive frames are built by the company. The 
frames generally consist of six parallel 10-inch 40-pound I-beams, which 




Fig. 109. — Galt, Preston & Hespler Locomotive and 1060-ton Train. 

are continuous from bumper to bumper. The body framing is of struc- 
tural steel shapes, and supports a turtle-back roof. Details follow the 
specifications of the M. C. B. Association, in the matter of roof, mounts, 
sliding doors, steps, footholds, couplers, draft gear, wheels, axles, pilots. 




r4 

Fig. 110. — Illinois Traction Company Locomotive of 1910. 

Six used in freight service on St. Louis Division. 60-ton, 960-h. p., direct-current, 600 volts. 

Four-geared motors, natural ventilation. 

automatic air brakes, train pipes, etc. Truck wheel bases are 7 feet 2 
inches, and truck centers of 19 feet are used. The inside of the loco- 
motive is fairly free from apparatus, and is loaded with merchandise. 



DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 



331 



Motors are direct-current 600-volt. For the older locomotives, there 
are four 90- to 150-h. p. motors. Six locomotives built in 1910 have 
4 G.E. 66-C, 240-h. p. motors, geared for slow speed, and controlled by 
Sprague-G.E. 18-point controllers, with 39 contactors. 

References. Description, drawings, and photographs, S. R. J., March 16, and 
July 6, 1907; E. R. J., Oct. 8, 1910, p. 646. 

NORTH-EASTERN RAILWAY. 

North -Eastern Railway, Newcastle, England, since 1904 has used six 
locomotives which displaced steam locomotives for freight traffic. 




Fig. 111. — North-Eastern Railway, England, Electric Freight Locomotive. 



The service and specifications require each locomotive to be capable of 
handling a 335-ton train on a level at 14 m. p. h. and-of starting a 166-ton 
train on a 4 per cent, grade and running up this grade at 9 . 5 m.p.h. The 
electric locomotives are of the double bogie type with central cab. 

Frames are of steel section with cast-iron blocks to bring up the weight. 
Side soles are 12-inch girders; center longitudinal girders are two 8-inch 



332 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

channels, and ends are 15-inch channels. Head stocks are of 8x15- 
inch oak. The bolster is formed by .two 6x5-inch girders, of 1-inch sec- 
tion, held on upper and lower sides by 3/4-inch plates. 

Trucks are of steel-plate frame, in accordance with English railway 
practice, strengthened with steel angles, and gussets with swinging bolster. 
The latter is supported on two nests of coil springs and is provided with 
cast-steel wearing plates, cast-steel center and side-bearing plates. Side 
frames are supported on axle boxes by heavy laminated springs. 

Motors are 4, a direct-current type, 600-volt, 160-h. p., with 2-turn 
armatures, and have a 3.28 gear ratio. 

Weight is 55 tons, all on eight 36-inch drivers. Length is 38 feet 
and the truck pivoted centers are 20 feet 6 inches. Wheel base is 6 feet 

6 inches. 

Reference. S. R. J., Oct. 8, 1904, p. 675 with photograph. 

METROPOLITAN— LONDON. 

Metropolitan Railway of London has used 10 electric locomotives for 
hauling the Great Western trains thru the northern part of the Circle, and 
for conveying its freight and passenger trains since the year 1905. 
The locomotives are used to haul 170-ton passenger trains at 36 m. p. h., 
and 275-ton freight trains at 27 m. p. h. 

The framing resembles that on the North-Eastern. Two trucks are 
used, each with a 7-foot 6-inch wheel base. The truck centers are 17 feet 
4 inches. Drivers are 36 inches. Total weight is 52 tons. 

Motors per locomotive are 4, each 200 h.p., direct-current, 600- 
volt, but rated 250 h. p. with forced draft at 4 to 6 ounces pressure. 

Reference. S. R. J., Aug. 26, 1905; Sept. 1, 1907. 

PARIS-ORLEANS RAILWAY. 

Paris-Orleans Railway of France, a steam road, began the use of 8 
electric locomotives in 1899, first on a 2.4-mile tunnel section, and in 
1904 on a 15-mile section between Paris and Juvisy. Other sections 
have since been added. 

The first locornotives were 55-ton, 35-foot, of the 2-bogie truck type 
with 4 sets of 49-inch drivers. Truck centers were 16 feet; truck bases 

7 feet 10 inches, and the total wheel base 23 feet 10 inches. 

Three 61-ton locomotives of the ^'baggage carrying" type with 18- 
foot 6-inch truck centers were added in 1904. 

Service conditions require the locomotive to haul 220-ton trains at a 
schedule speed of 43 to 48 m. p. h. and at a maximum speed of 62 m. p. h. 
The balance speed on the level with a 300-ton trailing load is 32 m. p. h. 



DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 333 




Fig. 112. — Paris-Orleans Railway Locomotive in Austerlitz Station, 1899. 




Fig. 113. — Paris-Orleans Railway Locomotive. Type used Since 1899. 
Elevation and plan of 55-ton unit. 



334 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



Motors on each locomotive are four G.E.-65j or 250-h. p., 575-volt, 
direct-current. The armature core is 23 1/2 inches in diameter by 12 
inches long. The motors, which weigh 8855 pounds each, are mounted 
with one end on the axle and nose supported on the tfruck transom; 
and a 2.23 gear ratio is used. Weight of the electrical equipment is 39 
per cent, of the total weight of the locomotive, 

DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES, 2000- VOLT. 

Rombacher-Huette Company of Maizieres, Lorraine, France, has 
used 3 Siemens-Schuckert 2000-volt, direct-current, freight locomotives, 
since 1906. The road is 9 miles long and connects the Moselheutte blast 
furnaces with iron mines at Ste. Marie. 

The service calls for the handling of 3000 tons of iron ore per day 
over a mountainous road. The ore is hauled up grades averaging 2 1/2 




Fig. 114. — Rombacher Huette Railway, Maizieres, France. Freight Locomotive. 

per cent, for 2 miles, then a level stretch of 2 miles and then a down- 
grade averaging 2 1/2 per cent, for 5 miles. Ruling grades for loaded 
trains are 3 per cent. The curves are severe and require slow running. 
The trip requires one hour. Cars weigh 14 tons empty and 48 tons 
loaded. Trains weigh about 300 tons. 

Locomotive weight is 62 tons, on 4 sets of 49-inch drivers. There 
are two 4-wheel bogie trucks on 15-foot 9-inch centers, and wheel bases 
of 8 foot 6 inch. 



DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 335 

The power system used is as follows: Three-phase current is generated 
and transmitted at 5700 volts, and afterward converted to direct current. 
Three-phase traction was not used because it required complicated 
overhead construction, and a large number of substations. Single-phase 
traction at 6000 volts would have been a disadvantage, because the 
line was short; and because, wuth the meter gage used, and the long 
commutator and the shorter effective core length, a sufficiently large 
geared motor could not be placed below the locomotive platform. 

Substations are located at each end of the line, and each contains a synchronous, 
three-phase, 880-h. p., 375-r. p. m. motor driving a 600-kw., 2000- volt, direct-current 
generator. Special care was given to the insulation of the commutator of the gener- 
ator and motor; and brush holders are set in compartments and insulated from 
the brush rocker, which in turn is insulated from the frame. Commutating poles are 
provided. In the switch gear at the station and on the locomotives the air spaces 
provided are large. Blow-out coils send the arcs at the fingers outward along con- 
tacts arranged in the form of horns. Automatic cut-outs and fuses have reliefs thru 
the roof to give a free exit for the arc. Oil switches could not be used, because of 
the surging which would be produced in the high-tension, continuous-current system 
by the rapid extinction of the arc in the oil. Magnetic blow-outs use horn extinguish- 
ers, and the arc is broken at two points, well removed from the contact blades. 

A short-circuit switch is provided in the cab, as on some American locomotives, 
for earthing the current collector, for the double purpose of protecting men who may 
be inspecting or repairing the electrical equipment and to short-circuit the main line 
in case an arc in the internal wiring, or in the motor, becomes uncontrollable. 

Motors consist of four 160-h.p., 1000-volt, 4-pole, interpole, geared 
units, permanently connected in groups of 2 in series. Motors have 61 
slots and 183 segments. At 160-h. p. rating, torque is 1700 pounds, speed 
is 620 r. p. m., amperes are 125, and motor efficiency is 91 per cent. 
Reference. Railway Gazette, London, October and November, 1907. 

St. Georges de Commiers a la Mure, France, a similar electric freight 
road, 20 miles long, was built in 1903. 

The system is the direct-current, 2400-volt, Thury, 3-wire, 2-trolley. 
Locomotives weigh 55 tons and haul thirteen 44-ton cars up 2.75 per 
cent, grades. There are four 125-h.p., 600-volt, nose-suspended motors 
per locomotive. Electric braking is used. 
Reference. S. R. J., Oct. 31, 1903. See 750- to 2000-volt roads, Chapter IV. • 

LITERATURE. 

References to other Direct-Current Locomotives. 

Havana Central R. R.: 40-ton, E. W., April 15, 1909. 

Boston Elevated Ry.: S. R. J., March 2, 1907. 

Canadian Pacific R. R.: Hull-Aylmer Div., freight, E. E., Oct. 7, 1896. 

Brooklyn Rapid Transit: S. R. J., March 23, 1907, p. 488; Oct. 1, 1910; Ry. Age, Nov. 

11, 1910. 
Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley: S. R. J., Aug. 4, 1906. 



336 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



Toledo & Indiana R. R.: S. R. J., Aug. 4, 1906. 

Indiana Union Traction: E. R. J., Sept. 12, 1908, pp. 637 and 747. 

Cliicago City Railway: E. R. J., Nov. 21, 1908; E. T. W., Nov. 14, 1908. 

Kansas City and Westport: S. R. J., Feb. 16, 1907. 

Portland, Oregon, Railway: 7 locomotives, E. R. J., Dec. 21, 1907. 

Northern Electric Ry., Cal.: E. R. J., June 10, 1911, p. 1011. 

Pacific Electric Ry. : Los Angeles, E. R. J., Oct. 10, 1908, p. 827. 

General Electric: Catalog No. 4537, Sept., 1907; No. 3287, Jan., 1905; No. 9139, Aug., 

1905; No. 4390, Oct., 1904; No. 4851, June, 1911. 
Westinghouse Electric Circular: No. 7045, of 1906; 1510 of 1910; 1517 of 1911. 
Westinghouse and General Electric Data, E. R. J., July 2, 1906, p. 12. 

Central London: Forty 48-ton, 680-h. p., E. W., July 21, 1900; Aug. 16, 1902, p. 229. 

City and South London: S. R. J., June, 1899; Aug. 16, 1909, p. 229. 

Norwegian: Electric Review, Nov. 13, 1909. 

France: DuBois, S. R. J., May 20, 1905, p. 911. 

Paris-Lyons Mediterranean: 600-h. p. loco, drawings, E. W., Feb. 4, 1899. 

Vienna City: 520-h. p.; 1500-volt, d. c, 3-wire, S. R. J., Nov. 3, 1906. 

See 1200- to 2000-volt railway references, pp. 129 and 130, Chapter IV. 



REFERENCES TO DETAILED DRAWINGS OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES. 



Name of Locomotive. 


Maker. 


Location. 


References. 


Baltimore & Ohio 96 


G.E 

G.E 

G.E 

G.E 

Co 

Co 

G.E 

G.E 

West 

G.E 






Baltimore & Ohio 03 ... . 
Baltimore & Ohio 10 ... . 
Bush Terminal 


Baltimore 

Baltimore 

Brooklyn 

Brooklyn 

Boston 

N. Y. Terminal . . 

Detroit 

N. Y. Terminal.. 
Illinois . . 


G.E. Bulletin 4537, 1907, p. 12. 
G.E. Review, Dec, 1910. 
G.E. Bulletin 4537, 1907, p. 14. 
S.R.J., March 23, 1907, p. 489. . 
March 2, 1907, p. 388. 
A.I.E.E., May, 1907, p. 748. 
G.E. Bulletin 4537, 1907, p. 6. 
S.R.J., Dec. 19, 1908, p. 1620. 
G.E. Bulletin 4537, p. 9. 
Ry. Age Gaz., Nov. 5, 1909. 
E.R.J., Oct. 8, 1910. 


Brooklyn Rapid T 

Boston Elevated 

New York Central 

Michigan Central 

Pennsylvania R.R 


Pacific Electric 

Northern Elec, Cal 

Metropolitan 


West 

West 

T.H 

G.E 


Los Angeles 

Sacramento 

London 

France 


E.R. Rev., July 27, 1907. 
E.R.J. , June 10, 1911, p. 1011. 
S.R.J., Aug. 26, 1905; Sept. 7, 1907. 


Paris-Orleans 




Paris -Lyons-M 


Paris Terminal. . 
1 France 


E. W., Feb. 4, 1899, p. 146. 
Ry. Gaz., Oct. and Nov., 1907. 


Rombacher-Huette 


Siemens . . . 



DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 337 



This page is reserved for additional references and notes on direct-current 
locomotives. 



22 



CHAPTER IX. 
TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF THREE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES. 

Outline. 
LIST OF THREE-PHASE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES. 



Nams of railway. 


Mile- 
age. 


Year 
opend. 


No. of 
loco. 


Power 
h.p. 


Wt. 
tons. 


Sets of 
drivers. 


Speed 
m.p.h. 


Gear 
ratio. 


Volt- 
tage. 


No. of 
cycles. 


Lugano, Italy. . . . 


5 


1896 


1 


25 


5 


2-33" 


9 


4.0 


500 


40 


Gornergrat 


6 


1898 


1 


160 


11 


Rack. . . 


4 


12.0 


500 


40 


Jungf rau 


10 


1898 


3 


180 


13 


Rack. . . 


5 




500 


38 








2 


240 


14 




5 


12.6 


500 


38 


Stansstad- 


14 


1898 


3 


150 


16 


Rack. . . 


3-6 


5.0 


750 


33 


Engleberg. 






















Burgdorf-Thun 


25 


1899 


2 


170 


32 




24 


3.00 


750 


40 


Interurban. 






1 


300 


33 


2-48" 


11 


1.88 


750 


40 


Siemens Works . . 




1904 


1 


1000 


44 


6-35" 




2.13 


10000 


50 


Italian State: 






















Valtellina Line 


70 


1902 


2 


900 


52 


4-55" 


19 


Crank 


3000 


15 






1904 


2 


1200 


69 


3-59" 


38 


Crank 


3000 


15 






1906 


2 


1500 


69 


3-59" 


40 


Crank 


3000 


15 


Giovi Line, Genoa 


26 


1909 


20 


1980 


67 


5-42" 


28 


Crank 


3000 


15 


Savonna Line. . . 


16 


1909 


10 


1980 


67 


5-42" 


28 


Crank 


3000 


15 


Mt. Cenis Tunnel 


5 


1910 


10 


1980 


67 


5-42" 


28 


Crank 


3000 


15 


Zossen Tests 


6 


1903 


1 


1000 


100 


6-49" 


120 


No gear 


10000 


50 


(motor cars) . . . 


6 


1903 


1 


1000 


85 


6-49" 


120 


No gear 


10000 


50 


Port Stanley, 


27 


1905 


2 


130 


20 


4-36" 


30 


3.27 


1100 


25 


London, Canada 






















Swiss Federal-. 






















Simp Ion Tunnel. 


14 


1907 


2 


1100 


70 


3-61" 


43 


Crank 


3000 


16 






1909 


2 


1700 


76 


4-49" 


43 


Crank 


3000 


16 


Santa Fe, Spain. . 


15 


1908 


5 


320 


30 


2 


16 


Gear 


5500 


25 


Great Northern: 






















Cascade Tunnel. 


7 


1909 


4 


1700 


115 


4-60" 


15 


4.26 


6600 


25 



References to detailed Drawings of Three-phase Locomotives, 353 



338 



CHAPTER IX. 

DESCRIPTION OF THREE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES. 

The technical descriptions of three-phase locomotives which follow 
do not include the small units used in the first five roads. 

SIEMENS-SCHUCKERT. 

Siemens -Schuckert Works, in 1904, built a large 3-phase, 50-cycle, 
4-4-ton locomotive, for experimental work. See accompanying illus- 
tration. 

The locomotive had two bogie trucks, on the axles of which were four 
6-pole, 250-h. p. geared motors. A 2.13 gear ratio was used. Drivers 
were 36-inch. The potential between each of 3 trolleys was 10,000 volts. 





\ 




J 

i 
H 


Kfir "■*- "is 




■P 




HK- ■ . 


— 








, .M , 



Fig. 115. — Siemens-Schuckert Locomotive of 1904. 
Three-phase, 11,000- to 1000- volt, 1000-h. p., geared type. 



VALTELLINA RAILWAY. 

Valtellina Line of the Italian State Railway, between Lecco, Sondrio, 
and Chiavenna, uses electric locomotives for 500-ton freight trains, and 
motor cars for 6-coach passenger trains. About 60 per cent, of the route 
has 2 per cent, gradients, tunnels, and sharp curves. 

The system is the 15-cycle, 3000-volt, three-phase; and the road, which 
has 70 miles of track, is fed from a 4200-kw. water power plant, thru 
nine 300-kw. transformer substations. 

339 



340 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

The electrical equipment, built by Ganz & Company, follows: 

Two 600-h. p., 52-ton, 0-4-0 locomotives ordered in 1902. 

Two 1200-h. p., 69-ton, 2-6-2 loconiotives ordered in 1904. 

Two 1500-h. p., 69-ton, 2-6-2 locomotives ordered in 1906. 

Ten 300- to 600-h. p., 32- to 58-ton motor cars, ordered in 1902. 

The 1902 locomotives, with 2 swivel trucks and 4 pairs of drivers, 
are used for freight service. They have one economical speed, 18.6 
miles per hour. Drawbar pull is rated 11,000 pounds. There are four 
14-pole, 128 r.p.m., 150-h.p., gearless, axle-mounted motors per locomo- 
tive. Motors weigh 22 tons, or 42 per cent, of the total weight. 

The 1904 locomotives have 3 driving axles and 2 pony axles. There 
are two economical speeds, 37.0 and 18.3 m.p.h., and the rated draw- 
bar pull is 7000 to 12,000 pounds. 



Fig. 116. — Italian State Railway, — Valtellina Locomotive of 1906. 
Three-phase, 15-cycle, 2-inotor unit. Total rated horse power 1500 at 40 m.p.h. Weight 69 tons. 

Motors are two 600-h. p. twin units, mounted in pairs on one shaft between the 
second and third and between the third and fourth axles ; and drive the axles thru a 
Scotch yoke, crank, and side rods. The 3 pairs of drivers are coupled and there is 
no danger, with varying loads on the individual motors, that one of the driving axles 
will slip. Motor and driving gear are spring-mounted and completely counter- 
balanced. Control is so arranged that at half speed the rotors of the 2 primary 3000- 
volt motors feed the stators of the two 400- volt motors connected in cascade relation 
with the first motors, which are placed on the same shaft. Each pair of motors has 
a 1-hour rating of 900 h. p. At full speed the 2 pairs of motors have a 1-hour rating 
of 1200 h. p. Width of motors is 51 inches, and diameter is 68 inches. Weight of two 
600-h. p. primary motors is 36,800 pounds and of secondary motors 18,800 pounds; 
total 55,600 pounds or 40 per cent, of the total weight, which is 139,000 pounds. 
Distance between cranks along the axle is 78 inches; distance between axle bear- 



DESCRIPTION OF THREE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 341 

ings along axle is 57 inches; distance between motor bearings along axle is 34 inches; 
width of motor is 51 inches; diameter of motor is 68 inches. 

Specifications for the 1904 locomotive required it to accelerate a 
448-ton train at 0.34 m. p. h. p. s., and to start a 448-ton train on a 0.3 
per cent, grade, and bring it up to a speed of 18.6 m. p. h. every 2 minutes 
for 1 hour, without excessive heating; and further that the motors on 10- 
hour shop test, at rated speed and load, should not have a temperature 
rise in any part exceeding 60° C. above the surrounding air. A 100 per 
cent, overload was specified for 200 seconds, and also a 50 per cent, over- 
load for 60 minutes, without 40° C. rise above the surrounding air. 

Design of 1904 locomotives calls for one fixed middle axle, which is 
journaled in the main frames. The other two driving axles have a range 




Fig. 117. — Valtellina Railway Locomotive of 1906. 



of side movement of about one inch. The locomotive has leading and 
trailing pony axles each of which has a radial movement, and one of them 
also has a lateral movement at the bolster. The fixed wheel base runs 
from the middle driving axle to the bolsters at the middle of the front 
truck. The truck design results in great freedom of adjustment and 
smooth running at curves. The cra^nks of the two motors are connected 
at each end of the motor by a yoke, which again is connected to the crank 
of the middle driving axle, but the bearing on this crank has a free ver- 
tical movement in the rod. 

The 1906 locomotives have the driving axles, the pony axles, and the 
connections used for the 1904 locomotives. There are, however, three 
economical speeds, in place of two. 



342 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



Motors are two, a 1200-h.p. and a 1500-h.p. At full speed only one 
motor is used and the locomotive is then rated at 1500 h. p. The relation 
of drawbar pull to speed is quoted as: 

Two motors, cascade relation, 16 m.p.h., 14,500 pounds. 
One 12-pole, 1200-h.p., 26 m.p.h., motor 12,100 pounds. 
One 8-pole, 1500-h.p., 40 m.p.h., motor 12,100 pounds. 
Two motors cannot be operated together at full speed. 



DATA ON VALTELLINA RAILWAY LOCOMOTIVES. 



Locomotives ordered in 


1902 


1904 


1906. 


Number ordered 


two 
0-4-4-0 


two 
2-6-2 


two 


Wheel arrangement 


2-6-2 


H. p. rating at each speed. 


600 @ 18.3 mph. 


900 @ 18. 3 mph. 


@16 mph. 


in m. p. h. 




1200 @ 37.0 mph. 


1200@25 mph. 
1500@40 mph. 


Full speed of motor, in r.p.m. 


128 


225 


225 


Pairs and diam. of drivers. . 


four 55'' 


. three 59" 


three 59" 


Pairs and diam. of truck 


none 


two 33 


two 33 


wheels. 








Wheel base, total 


2F-8'' 


3F-10'' 


31'-2" 


Wheel base, rigid 


6'-7'' 


16'- 1" 


15'-5" 


Weight, total tons 


52 


68 


69 


Weight on drivers, tons. . . . 


52 


47 


47 


Weight of motors, tons. . . . 


22 


27.8 


27.3 



References on Valtellina Locomotives, Italian State Railway. 

Wilson and Lydall: Vol. I, p. 347; Vol. II, p. 54, for duplex motors on 1904 loco. 
Locomotive Tests: S. R. J., March 11, 1905; Aug. 5 and 25, 1905; Electrical World, 

Vol. 46, pp. 221 and 766, 1905; S. R. J., May 2 and 30, 1903, p. 663 and 788. 
Hammer: Descriptive, A. I. E. E., Feb., 1901. 
Waterman and Muralt: A. I. E. E., June, 1905; Nov., 1909. 

Kando: Zeitschrift des Vereines deutscher Ingenieure, Jan., 1905 and Jan., 1909. 
Valatin: Speed Control, S. R. J., Apr. 6, 1907, p. 575; weight factor, S. R. J., Jan. 4, 

1908; Elektrische Kraftbetriebe and Bahnen, 1907, heft 6. 



GIOVI RAILWAY. 

Giovi Railway, an Italian State Railway, between Genoa, Piedmont, 
and Lombard, in 1909 installed electric power for the section between 
Genoa and Pontedecimo, 13 miles of double track. 

The system is the 15-cycle, 3000-volt, three-phase. 

Equipment was furnished by the Italian Westinghouse Company, and 
includes 20 locomotives for the Giovi Line; also 20 locomotives for the 



DESCRIPTION OF THREE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 



343 



Savonna-Ceva Line, about 12 miles west of Genoa; and 10 locomotives 
for the Mt. Cenis Tunnel. 

The locomotives haul 1100 cars per day over the route and grades. 
The tonnage is twice that previously sent over this double track line. 
The service is stated to be the heaviest railroad freight traffic in the 
world hauled by electric locomotives. 

Power station now contains two 6000-kv.a. steam turbines driving 
15-cycle, 13,000-volt alternators, and a water rheostat which can auto- 
matically absorb a maximum of 4000 kw., if regenerated energy is not 




Fig. 118, — Italian State Railway Locomotive. Giovi Line, 1909. 



absorbed in useful work. There are four 3000-kw. step-down trans- 
former substations along the 12.5-mile line, which reduce the voltage 
to 3000. 

In general there are two 990-h.p. , 225 r .p.m. motors per locomotive and 
two locomotives per train. The locomotives have 2 speeds — 14.5 and 
28 m.p.h. There are 5 coupled axles, and the drivers on the middle 
axle are without flanges. Front and rear axle have an 0.8-inch lateral 
movement. The two motors are placed over and between the axles 
nearest the middle of the locomotive and are crank-connected to the 
side rods, thru Scotch yokes. 

Specifications for the 1909 Giovi locomotive follow: 

Weight was not to exceed 67 tons; but the mechanical construction was to carry 
an additional 25 per cent, if required for adhesion for heavier trains than specified. 



344 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



Trains to weigh 418 tons exclusive of the locomotives. 

Locomotives to be used in pairs, one at each end of the train. 

The road over which the locomotives were to be tested and used to be 12.5 miles 
long. The grades to average 2.70 per cent, for a distance of 6.5 miles, the ruling grade 
to be 3.50 per cent, for several miles, and a 2.90 per cent, g ade for 2.6 miles in one 
tunnel. Curves to have a 540-foot minimum radius. 

Speed on the up-grades to be 28 m.p.h., and in regeneration on the down-grades 
to be 14 m.p.h. Acceleration to 28 m.p.h. to be carried out in 200 seconds, or at the 
rate of 0.14 m. p. h. p. s. Acceleration to 14 m.p.h. with one locomotive hauling 
440 tons trailing load, on a 0.3 per cent, grade, and 540-foot radius curve, to be 
made 30 times per hour. Time for acceleration or for deceleration to be 2 minutes. 




26Q00 26800 



26800 



2.6800 2680O 



Fig. 119.^ — Italian State Railway Locomotive. Giovi Line, 1909. 

Giovi Line. 67-ton, 1980-h. p., 3-phase, 15-cycle, 3000-3000-volt motors for side-rod connection. 

Forced ventilation. Freight service. 



Running time for 12.5 miles, at 28 m.p.h., to be 27 minutes; for the return 54 
minutes; for the layover 59 minutes; round trip 140 minutes. 

Temperature after 8.5 round trips or 20 hours' run with 418-tons trailing load, 
with forced draft, followed by one round trip without forced draft, was not to rise 
75° C. by resistance (not by thermometer) . 

(Note: Power required on the 2.7 per cent, up-grade is (418 + 67 + 67) X (54 -f 6) 
X 28/375 or 2475 h.p. ; and on 3.5 per cent, up-grade is 3134 h.p. Power on the level, 
at full speed, is only 247 h.p.) 

Motors have double frames, the outer of which is built into the main 
locomotive frame and has for its function only the maintenance of the 
air gap independent of changes in position of the locomotive frame 
members. The outer frame takes the thrust of the connecting rods. 
The motor is entirely spring mounted, on four spiral springs, two 
on each side of the motor axle boxes. The motors are slipped into 
place, in their outer frames, from below. A motor can be removed in 
two hours. Two motors weigh 27 tons. See Figure 50. 



DESCRIPTION OF THREE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 345 

Motors are of the three-phase slip-ring, -S-pole type. Each is rated by 
the Italian Westinghouse engineers at nearly 1000 h. p. for 1 hour or 
720 h. p. continuous on forced draft, based on 75° C. rise, determined by 
resistance measurements. Motors have partly closed slots for protection 
of windings in the rotor and stator. These slots are filled with a flexible 
insulating compound (which at times gets into the air gap). 

Control is by means of the concatenated scheme. The rotor or second- 
ary of the first motor delivers a very low voltage to the primary of the 
second motor. The secondary of the second motor is then connected 
to a compressed-air-controlled water rheostat, the gradual change in 




Fig. 120. — Italian State Railway. — Giovi Line. 
Locomotives and 440-ton train on 3 . 5 per cent, grade. 



which provides smooth acceleration. In order to change from parallel to 
concatenated connections or to reverse the direction of motor, a small 
3000-volt, air-break switch is used to open the main circuit. Change 
is then made in the contact mechanism or connections, so that arcing 
does not occur at the controller contacts. 

Multiple control is arranged, yet the current in any one motor is 
limited and locomotives with widely different wheel diameters and loads 
are used together. The pushing locomotive can then carry the larger load, 
as is frequently desirable. The current to a locomotive is limited by the 
addition of resistance, automatically inserted in the secondary of the 
motor by the action of induction regulators, relays, and compressed air 
which change the level of the water in the rheostats connected in the 
secondary circuits of the motors. Interlocks are arranged for compressed- 
air-operated switches, trolley, and rheostats. Bow trolleys with rolling 
contact were found to be suitable for the low speeds. 



346 ELECTRIC TRACTON FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

References. 

Kando: Zeitschrift des Vereines deutscher Ingenieure, 1909, p. 1249, abstracted in 

E. W., Aug. 11, 1910. Sprecht: Elec. Journal, Dec, 1908. 
London Electrical Engineering, Feb. 9, 1911. 
E. R. J., April 8, 1911, p. 631. 

SWISS FEDERAL RAILWAY. 

Simplon Tunnel Line from Brig in Switzerland to Iselle in Italy was 
completed and placed in service, with electric locomotive traction, in 
July, 1907. This 12.3-mile tunnel thru the Alps is the longest in the 
world. The grade is 0.7 per cent, thru one-half, and 0.2 per cent, thru 
the other half of the tunnel. The tunnel is very hot and moist, but it is 
ventilated by means of fans, the air having a velocity of 7 m. p. h. 




20I6O 



31360 



3360O 



336 00 



20I60. 



Fig. 121. — Swiss Federal Railway Locomotive, 1907. 

Two used on Simplon Tunnel. 70-ton, 1100-h. p., 3-phase, 16-cycle, 3000-3000-volt motors for 

side-rod connection. Mixed service. 



Water power is used for electric train haulage and comes from two 
central stations having a total capacity of 2700 h. p. 

The system used is the 16-cycle, three-phase, with 3000 volts on the 
contact line, and also on the stator of the motors. 

Each locomotive has two motors with cranks on the rotors which 
connect thru Scotch yokes to the driver side rods. 

Two class 2-6-2 locomotives, built in 1907, each have two 550-h. p. 
slip-ring type motors, the control of which is by pole changing in the 
primary and resistance in the rotor or secondary. The speed is 21 or 
43 miles per hour. 

Two class 0-4-4-0 locomotives, built in 1909, each have two 850-h. p. 
squirrel-cage type motors, the control of which is by varying the voltage 
to the stator. The speed is 16, 21, 33, or 43 m. p. h. Leading and trailing 



DESCRIPTION OF THREE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 347 

axles are surrounded b}^ liolloAV axles which allow some lateral movement, 
and thus the use of pilot axles is avoided. 

Locomotive design for the two 1909 locomotives shows a radical 
improvement. Experience had taught that four speeds were quite 
necessary. Collector-ring rotors were avoided on account of the limita- 
tions of shaft space and core width, and the awkwardness of this high- 
voltage, current-collecting device. Cascade control was not considered 
advantageous; on the contrary, it was cumbersome and complicated. 
The ideal three-phase motor was apparently not the bar-wound armature, 
with collector rings, and complicated connections. 




ZdOSO 38080 



38080 



38080 



Fig. 122. — Swiss Federal Railway Locomotive, 1909. 

Two used at Simplon Tunnel. 76-ton, 1700-h. p., 3-phase, 16-cycle, 3000-3000-volt motors for 

side-rod connection. Mixed service. 



Squirrel-cage rotors were simple and rigid and had a minimum num- 
ber of parts to get out of order. They were adopted for the 1909 loco- 
motives. It is well known, however, that the squirrel-cage, low-resistance 
rotors have a low starting torque, but the windings were designed with 
5 times the ordinary resistance to give sufficient starting torque. 

Specifications for the latest or 1909 locomotives: 

Drawbar pull to exceed 13,000 pounds when running at 40 to 50 m. p. h. and to 
exceed 5,500 pounds at a speed of 20 to 25 m. p. h., even should the normal voltage 
of 3000 drop to 2700. (Drawbar pull varies inversely as the square of the voltage.) 

Locomotives to be capable of bringing a train of a total weight of 448 tons of 
2000 pounds from rest to a speed of 20 m. p. h. in 55 seconds on the level; to bring a 
total weight of 280 tons from rest to a speed of 40 m. p. h. in 110 seconds; and to be 
capabl3 of starting from rest with a total train weight of 280 tons on a 2 per cent, 
grade with certainty under all conditions. 



348 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



Motors, starting resistance, and all electrical details to be proportioned to enable 
a train having a total weight of 448 tons to be accelerated from rest to 20 m. p. h. 
at least 30 consecutive times, at intervals of 2 minutes, on curves of not more 
than 600-feet radii, and with a gradient of not more than 0.3 per cent., without 
any part of the equipment sustaining injury from undue stress or overheating. 

Motors after a continuous run of 10 hours at rated load, at either working speed, 
to have a temperature rise in any part of the motor, including the bearings, not to 
exceed 60° C. ; and after a continuous run of 1 hour at 50 per cent, overload, or 200 
seconds at 100 per cent, overload, the temperature rise was not to exceed 40° C. 

Motor torque and speed are varied by changing from 16 to 12, 8, or 6 poles; 
and with 16 poles the drawbar pull is a maximum. The absolute torque is varied by 
regulating the voltage impressed upon the rotor. At the instant of starting the max- 
imum energy is lost in heat in the rotor, while at full speed only a part of this loss 




Fig. 123. — Swiss Federal Railway, Simplon Tunnel Locomotive, 1909. 
Three-phase, 3000-volt, 16-cycle units. Brown, Boveri & Co. 



exists. The starting torque is proportional to the loss in the rotor circuits, and can 
be obtained by using a large resistance and small current as in the collector ring rotor, 
or by using a large current and small resistance. The latter scheme is used. The 
rotor resistance is placed between the bars and the short-circuiting ring, and so 
arranged that temperatures of 250° C, or an increase in resistance of about 50 per 
cent., may be used under necessary circumstances. The loss in the stator winding 
is somewhat larger than in a collector ring type of motor. In other words efficiency 
is sacrificed for simplicity in the design and maintenance. 

Parallel operation of different locomotives is not difficult. The maximum wear 
of the drivers, with electric braking, is 1.375 inches or about 3 per cent., and the 
squirrel-cage motors are designed for about 7 per cent, full-loaded slip. 

Service reaches a maximum of 24 trains per day each way. It requires 700 h. p. 
more to run in the tunnel than in the open. 



DESCRIPTION OF THREE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 349 

SIMPLON TUNNEL LOCOMOTIVE DATA. 

Locomotives ordered in 1907 1909 

Number ordered 2 2 

Wheel order 2-6-2 0-8-0 

Wt. of passenger cars 326 392 

Wt. of freight cars 448 730 

H. p. rating at 16 . 1 m. p. li 1300 

21.7 800 1100 

32.2 1300 

43 . 5 1100 1700 

R. p. m. of motor, full speed 240 320 

No. of axles, total 5 4 

Pairs and diam. of drivers 3-64 . 5'' 4-49 . 0" 

Wheel base total 31'-11" 26'-3'' 

Wheel base rigid 16'- 1" 5'-7" 

Wt. of electric motors, tons • 25.0 27.5 

Wt. of transformers 6.6 

W^t. of lighting set and compressors 8.0 5.0 

Wt. of mechanical parts 37 . 37 . 

Wt. of locomotive, total 69 . 76.0 

Wt. of locomotive on drivers 50 . 76.0 

Wt. on each set of drivers 16.6 19.1 

H. p. per ton, full speed 15.9 22.4 

Ratio drawbar pull to weight on drivers in starting, per cent. . . 35.5 34.5 

DRAWBAR PULL AT DRIVERS IN POUNDS. 

Lo3omotive of 1907 rated 1100 h. p. at 44 m. p. h. 

Number of poles 16 16 8 

Miles per hour standstill 21.73 43.47 

Pull on the level 17,610 13,000 8,370 

Pull on 2.5 % grade 17,610 9,480 5,080 

Locomotive of 1909 rated 1700 h. p. at 44 m. p. h. 

Number of poles 16 16 12 8 ' 6 

Miles per hour standstill 16.46 21.73 32.91 43.47 

Pull on the level 26,400 24,800 21,800 16,320 13,250 

Pull on 2.5 % grade 26, 400 21,200 18,050 12,350 9,470 

References on Simplon Tunnel Locomotives. 

S. R. J., Feb. 24, 1906; E. W., Oct. 27, 1906; Elec. Review, Nov. 13, Dec. 4, 1909. 
Schweizerische Bauzeitung, Oct., 1909. 
Zeitschrift des Vereines deutscher Ingenieure, Jan., 1909, p. 993. 

GREAT NORTHERN RAILWAY. 

Great Northern Railway has four 115-ton, 3-phase electric locomotives. 
They were ordered June, 1907, delivered February, 1909, and placed in 
full service during July, 1909. 

The service is trunk-line freight and passenger-train haulage thru a 
tunnel in the Cascade mountains. The tunnel is 14,400 feet long and 
has a 1.7 per cent, grade. The route is 4 miles long; and the mileage is (5. 



350 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



Power is derived from a water power plant on the Wenatchee River, 
25 miles west of the tunnel. A 600-foot dam runs diagonally across the 
river. The water is led to the power house by means of a wood stave 
pipe 11,000 feet long and 8 feet 6 inches in diameter. The head is 140 
feet. Generators consist of three 2000-kw., 3-phase, 25-cycle units. 

Transmission line length is 30 miles. The voltage, which is 33,000, 
is stepped down at the tunnel to 6600 volts for use on the double trolley. 

Trucks for the locomotives were designed for low speeds on grades, 
15 m. p. h. They are of the articulated or hinged type, with 4 drivers on 




Fig. 124. — Great Northern Railway Locomotive, 1909. 
Four used at Cascade Tunnel. 116-tons, 1700-h. p., 3-phase units. 25-cycIe, 6000-volt line. 

Four 500- volt geared motors. 



each half of the running gear, and there are no guiding wheels. The hinged 
sections are designed to guide each other on curves. Trucks are equal- 
ized to distribute the stresses over the springs and to eliminate twisting 
stresses in the truck frame and running gear. The truck '"design is 
described on page 319. The rigid wheel base is 11 feet, and the total 
wheel base 31 feet 9 inches. Drivers are 60-inch. 

The framing is made of annealed steel castings. Sides are trussed, 
and end frames and bolsters are steel castings of the box girder type 
designed for bufhng stresses of 500,000 pounds. Bolsters are hollow and 
form part of the air duct for the motor ventilation. The cab is carried 
on center pins on each bolster. One of the center pins provides for a 
longitudinal variation in the distance between truck centers on curves. 

Transformers on each locomotive are two 400-kw., three-phase. 



DESCRIPTION OF THREE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 351 



They reduce the voltage from 6000 to 500. These transformers and the 
motors are cooled by a motor-driven fan which furnishes 9400 cubic feet 
of air per minute at 2-ounce pressure. 

Motors are four 3-phase, 25-cycle, 120-ampere, 8-pole, 500-volt, 
of the slip-ring type units, rated 475 h.p. for 1 hour when supplied with 
1500 cubic feet of air per minute at 2-ounce pressure. The diameter of 
the armature is 35 3/4 inches, and the width is 16 1/4 inches. Gear 
ratio is 4.26, and double gearing is used between the 358 r. p. m. rotor 
and the axle. Maximum power factor is 86. Air-gap is 1/8 inch. 

Horse power rating per motor is as follows: 



Time in hours. 


Cooling 
j method. 


Air 
c.f.m. 


Volts to 
motor. 


Power 
h.p. 


Note 

No. 


One hour, 75°.. . 


Natural 





500 


425 


1 




Forced 



1500 


625 
500 






One hour, 75°. . . 


475 


1 








625 


550 


2 


Continuous, 75°. 


Natural 





500 


250 


3 


Continuous, 75°. 


Forced 


1500 


500 


375 


1 








625 


400 


2 


Continuous, 40°. 


Forced 


1500 


500 


260 


2 



Tractive effort at 375 h.p. is 9350 pounds; at 475 h.p. is 11,875 pounds. 
Note 1. C. T. Hutchinson data to A. I. E. E., Nov., 1909, p. 1285. 
Note 2. E. F. W. Alexanderson data to A. I. E. E., Nov., 1909, p. 1342. 
Note 3. G. E. bulletin 4851, June, 1911. 
Transformers have a 3-hour rating of 400 kv.a. with forced draft. 

Motor control is by means of a variation of resistance in the rotor 
circuit. Two motors are used in first starting and four while running. 
Weight of locomotive in pounds is: 

Two trucks 81,500 

One cab 30,000 

Four motors, 425-h. p. each 59,800 

Two transformers, 400-kw. each 20,800 

Compressors and blowers 7,100 

Control equipment 13,400 

Miscellaneous 17,400 

Total weight 230,000 

Weight per axle 57,500 pounds; dead weight per axle, 18,500 pounds. 

Service consists of the haulage of about 3 passenger and 3 freight 
trains each way per day. Trailing tons for freight trains exclusive of 
3 electric locomotives are 1750; and for passenger trains exclusive of 2 
electric locomotives are 775 tons. Annual locomotive mileage is 50,000. 



352 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

This was the first three-phase locomotive equipment in America. 
The installation is radically different from the installations made by 
Ganz, Brown-Boveri, Westinghouse^ and Oerlikon in the following: 

1. Trolley contacts are used in place of pantographs or bows, with cylinders or 
sliders. Trolley wheels are held to be a nuisance. The changing of 6 trolleys at the 
end of each short run, and in the dark at night, is a nuisance. A simple, wide panto- 
graph could be substituted for the contact wheels. Catenary construction, parallel 
to the trolleys, was not used to support the trolley in the switch yards. The over- 
head pan switch design used is unsatisfactory and is a source of annoyance and 
danger, even at the slow speed. See Figures 175 and 176. 



Fig. 125. — Great Northern Locomotive and Train, 1909. 
Two electric locomotives hauling an ordinary 11 -coach train and steam locomotive. 

2. Twenty-five cycles have been tried. If 15 cycles had been adopted, two loco- 
motives per freight train might have been used in place of three. 

3. Two transformers are located on each locomotive, in place of in a substation 
at the side of the road. 

4. The locomotive has only one running speed. 

5. Slip-ring motors with brush contacts are used in place of simple high-resistance, 
squirrel-cage motors. 

6. Geared motors are used. The length along the shaft, available for collector 
rings and for the gear teeth, is much restricted. 

7. Motors are hung on an axle and on a cross bar, as in trolley cars. The center 
line of the motors is below the center line of the axle. The dead weight per axle is 
18,500 pounds. The track repairs are high. 

8. The electric system was laid out for long-distance mountain-grade railroad 
service. The locomotives cannot be used for such service without a radical change 
in the design. 

Service with steam locomotives in the Cascade tunnel was described 
by Hutchinson to A. I. E. E., November, 1909: 

"Trains east bound from the Pacific coast were from 1400 to 1500 tons trailing 
load with two Mallet compound engines. At the west end of the tunnel, at the foot 
of the grade, all trains were stopped, fires were hauled and cleaned, the engine took on 
a special high-grade coal, new fires were built, the engines remained in the yard for an 



DESCRIPTION OF THREE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 353 

hour or more, coking these fires in order to get rid of superfluous gas. The train was 
divided so that two Mallets took 1,000 tons (up the 1.7 per cent, grade). When 
weather conditions were bad it was almost impossible to get trains thru the tunnel. 
Sometimes it was necessary to wait 2 or 3 hours after the passage of a train before it 
was safe to send a second train thru. Frequently the steam pressure of the rear 
Mallet would fall from 200 pounds to 70 pounds or less, owing to the impossibility of 
maintaining fires on account of the exhausted condition of the air in the tunnel." 

Operating results with electric traction have been reported as both favorable and 
unfavorable. The system is new and time will be required to fit the electric loco- 
motive to the service on this steam road. 

The railway company, having found that electric locomotives could haul much 
more than that for which they are guaranteed, proceeded to overload the motors, 
and the tonnage in each train, thereby effecting certain economies at the expense of 
the electric service. 

In going down grades the motors automatically reverse their function and return 
power to the line, and thus brake the train without the application of mechanical 
brakes. The air brakes are held in reserve. 

" "With electric locomotives the operation on a heavy grade becomes as simple as 
on a level; the enginemen and trainmen feel much greater confidence in the electric 
locomotives and consequently the mountain division ceases to be a terror to them." 
Hutchinson. 

References on Great Northern Railway Locomotives. 

General Electric bulletin 4537, Sept., 1907; G. E. Review, Aug. and Sept., 1910. 

E. R. J., Dec. 28, 1907; Oct. 31, 1908; Nov. 20, 1909. 

Elec. World, Oct. 31, 1908. 

R. R. Age Gazette, Jan. 15, 1909; Dec. 3 and 24, 1909. 

Hutchinson: Paper and discussion, proceedings of A. I. E. E., Nov., 1909. 

Slichter: Design of Controllers, A. I. E. E., Nov. 1909, p. 1338. 



References to Detailed Drawings of Three-phase Locomotives. 



Name of locomotive 


Maker. 


Location. 


References. 


Italian State 

Swiss Federal 

Swiss Federal 

Italian State 

Great Northern 


West 

Brown 

Brown 

Ganz 

(;.i: 


Giovi Line 

Simplon, 1907 . . . 
Simplon, 1909 . . . 

Valtellina 

Cascade Tunnel. . 


Zcitschrift, 1909, p. 12. 

Zeitschrift, 1909, p. 3. 

A.I.E.E., July, 1910, Eaton & Storer. 

S.R.J. , April 6, 1907, p. 579. 

E.R.J., Nov. 20, 1909. 



G.E. Bulletin 4537, 1907, p. 13. 



23 



CHAPTER X. 
TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES. 

Outline. 
LIST OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES, SINGLE-PHASE 25-CYCLE. 















Drivers. 






Name of railroad. 


No. of 
loco. 


Name of 
builder. 


No. of 
motors. 


Total 
h.p. 


Wt. 
tons. 






Gear 
ratio. 


Trolley 






voltage. 














Pr. 


Diam. 






Westinghouse Inter- 


2 


West. . . . 


3 


675 


63 


3 


60" 


5.28 


6,600 


works. 




















Pennsylvania experi- 


1 


West. . . . 


2 


920 


70 


2 


72 


Zero 


11,000 


mental. 




















New York, New 


35 


West. . . . 


4 


960 


96 


4 


62 


Zero 


11,000 


Haven & Hartford. 


6 


West. . . . 


4 


960 


102 


4 


62 


Zero 






1 


West 


4 


1260 


136 


4 


63 


2.32 






1 


West. . . . 


2 


1350 


135 


4 


57 


Crank 






1 


West. . . . 


8 


1396 


116 


4 










15 


West. . . . 


4 


600 


80 


4 


63 


Gear 




Windsor, Essex & L. S. 


1 


West. . . . 


4 


400 


35 


4 


36 




6,600 


Spokane & Inland 


6 


West. . . . 


4 


500 


50 


4 


36 


4.24 


6,600 


F.mpire. 


8 


West. . . . 


4 


680 


72 


4 


50 


5.65 


6,600 


Grand Trunk Ry., 




















Samia Tunnel 


6 


West.. .. 


3 


675 


66 


3 


62 


5.31 


3,300 


Kock Island Southern. 


1 


West. . . . 


4 


500 


60 


4 


42 




11,000 


Boston & Maine 


3 


West. . . . 


4 


1340 


130 


4 


63 


4.14 


11,000 




2 


West. . . . 


4 


1340 


130 


4 


63 


2.32 




Illinois Traction 


1 


G.E 


4 


600 


50 


4 


44 


4.95 


3,300 


(repulsion motors) 




















Swedish State: 


fl 


West. . . . 


2 


300 


28 


2 


42" 


3.88 


18,000 


Stockholm Div .... 


1 


West. . . . 


4 


460 


40 


4 


44 


5.27 






ll 


Siemens . 


3 


330 


51 


3 


43 


5.00 




Thamshavn-Lokken, 


3 


West 


4 


160 


22 


4 






11,000 


Norway. 


3 


Siemens . 


4 


160 












Tergnier-Anizy, 


3 


West. . . 


2 


80 










3,300 


France. 




















Prussian State: 


fl 


A.E.G... 


3 


1050 


65 


4 


55 


4.15 


6,000 


Oranienburg 


i; 


A.E.G. 


2 


600 








2.36 






Siemens . 


3 


1050 


66 


3 




Geared 




St. Polten-Mariazell... 


17 


Siemens . 


2 


500 


50 


6 


33 


2.90 


6,000 


Frieburg 


1 


Oerlikon . 


4 


600 








4.00 




AlbtalRy.: 










Karlsruhe-Herrenalb 


4 


A.E.G. . . 


4 


340 


35 


4 


36 


6.10 


8,000 


Brembana Valley, 




















Bergamo-Bianco . . 


5 
3 

4 


West. . . . 

West 

Siemens . 


4 
4 

4 


300 
160 
160 








4.66 


6,000 


Rome-Castellana . . 








6,600 














Naples-Piedemonte . . 


2 


A.E.G... 


4 


320 










11,000 















354 



LIST OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES, SINGLE-PHASE, 15-CYCLE. 















Drivers. 








No. of 
loco. 


Name of 
Builder. 


No. of 
Motors. 


Total 
h.p. 


Wt. 
tons. 






Gear 
ratio. 


Trolley 
voltage. 


Name of railroad. 












i 
! 






pair. 


diam. 






Pennsylvania 


1 


West 


2 


920 


76 


4 


72" 


Gear- 


11,000 


10003 experimental. 
















less. 




Visalia Electric 




West 


4 


500 


47 


4 


36 


3.89 


3,300 


General Electric .... 




Gen. Elec . 


2 


800 


125 


3 


49 


Crank 


11,000 


Shawinigan Falls .... 




Gen. Elec . 


4 


600 


50 


4 


36 


4.95 


6,600 


Swiss Federal: 




















Seebach-Wet- 




Leonard . . 


4 


400 


52 


4 




3.50 


15,000 


tingen experi- 




Oerlikon. . 


2 


500 


45 


4 


40 


3.08 




mental. 




Siemens . . 


6 


1350 


83 


3 




3.75 




Bavarian State: 




Siemens . . 


2 


350 




2 




5.00 


5,500 


Mumau-Oberam- 




















mergau. 




















Prussian State: 




A.E.G... 


1 


1900 








Crank 


10,000 


Magdeburg- 




A.E.G. . . . 


1 


1000 


77 


4 


63 


Crank 




Leipzig. 




A.E.G... 


1 


800 


64 


4 


41 


Crank 






2 


Brown. . . . 


2 


1600 




4 


69 


Crank 








Bergmann. 


1 


1500 








Crank 








Oerlikon. . 


1 


800 
















Siemens . . 


1 


1100 




' 












Siemens . . 


1 


1800 
















Siemens . . 


2 


2500 












Baden State: 




















"Wiesental (Basel 


10 


Siemens . . 


2 


1050 


71 


3 


47 


4.15 


10,000 


-Zell). 




A.E.G... 


2 


1130 












Bernese Alps 




Oerlikon. . 


2 


2000 


97 


6 


54 


C.&G. 


15,000 




1 


A.E.G... . 


2 


1600 


103 


4 


50 


Crank 




Budapest- Waitzen . . 




Siemens . . 


4 


480 










10,000 


French Southern.. . . 




West 


2 


1600 


89 


3 







C.&G. 


12,000 






A.E.G... 


2 


1600 


94 


3 




Crank 






13 
2 


Brown. . . . 
Siemens . . 
Siemens . . 


2 
2 

1 


1600 
2000 
1000 








Crank 
Oank 
Crank 




Swedish State: 








15,000 


Kiruna- 










Rik.sgransen. 










Mittenwald, Austria. 


6 


A.E.G... . 


1 


800 


64 


• 4 


41 


Crank 


10,000 


Rjukon, Norway. . . 


3 


A.E.G... . 


4 


500 


44 


4 


39 


Gear 


10,000 




2 
3 

• 2 
3 

8 


A.E.G... . 
A.E.G... . 
A.E.G... . 


2 
3 
5 


250 
800 
600 
600 
300 








Gear 
Gear 
Gear 




Vienna-Pressburg, . . 




'.'.'.'.'.'. 




10,000 












Rhatische Mtn 








10,000 






















i 





Literature. 

References on 



Detailed Drawings of Single-phase Locomotives, 399 



355 



CHAPTER X. 

DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE -PHASE LOCOMOTIVES. 

IN GENERAL. 

The technical descriptions which follow are for the most important 
and typical installations, 

WESTINGHOUSE INTERWORKS RAILWAY 
Westinghouse Inter works Railway, at East Pittsburg, Pa., used the 
first single-phase railway locomotive in America. It was built in 1905 
for freight switching work, at 10 miles per hour. 



J^ 


^^^^^^^^IH^^HHHii^b#^<^^ . - .<,.£, j^^,^ y ^.,, 


P M ■ 1'f V ^ " '^M 


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; ^ ' ^ -.., \ ■:^;P::|pa^ 





Fig. 126. — First Single-phase Locomotive in America, 1905. 

Two locomotive units, Nos. 8 and 9, were used in pairs. Each weighed 
63 tons, had 3 motors, 3 pairs of 60-inch drivers, and three 8-inch axles, 
spaced on 6-foot 4-inch centers, on one truck. 

Motors were a single-phase, 25-cycle, 8-pole, geared type, with forced 

356 



DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 357 

ventiLation. The capacity of each was 225 h. p. A 5.28 gear ratio was 
used. The 6600 volts on the trolley were reduced by a transformer to 
from 140 to 325 volts for the motors. The motor armatures were quill- 
supported on the axle, and the motor frames were spring-suspended 
from the locomotive body. Efficiency and power factor were .866 and 
.865 respectively at normal load, and .865 and .955 at half load. 

Tests at the yards showed a normal drawbar pull of 48,500 pounds, 
and from 65,000 to 97,000 with sand, before slipping occurred, or up to 



-± 



^^ 



^ 



^ 



ZZL 




(2 8 00J0 






jTiG. 127. Test Curves Showing Drawbar Pull, Exerted by Westinghouse Single-phase 

Electric Locomotive. 

Equipped with six 225-h. p., single-phase railway motors, having a 5.3 gear ratio. Diameter of 

drivers, 60 inches. Weight of 50-car train, 1162 tons: weight of locomotive, 126 tons; total weight, 

1288 tons. Brakes set on the four rear cars. 



38 per cent, of the weight on drivers. Dynamometer records were made 
while hauling a train with a total weight of 1288 tons. Other tests showed 
an acceleration rate, during the first 40 seconds, of 0.25 m. p. h. p. s., 
while hauling an 818-ton train. See accompanying curves. 

References. 

E.W., May 20, 1905, p. 925; drawings, June 3, 1905, p. 1045; S. R. J., May 20, 1905, 
' and June 3, 1905, pp. 923 and 999; Electric Journal, Vol. II, July, 1905, 
pp. 359 and 764. 

PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD, SINGLE-PHASE. 

Pennsylvania Railroad Company had the Westinghouse Company 
build a locomotive known as 10003, in 1909, for use in experimental work 
on Long Island, to determine the mechanical and electrical requirements 
for Pennsylvania Railroad locomotives at its New York terminal. 

Specifications called for a passenger locomotive of the Atlantic type, 
a maximum drawV^ar pull of 24,000 pounds, a weight of 70 tons, and a rating 
of about 1000 h.p., for use on a single-phase, 11,000-volt line, to haul 
a 400-ton trailing load at GO m. p. h. on level track. It was also to be 



358 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



suitable for speeds up to 80 m. p. h., and the haulage of trains on 2 per 
cent, grades in terminal service. 

Weight of the locomotive on four 72-inch drivers is 50 tons, and on 
four 36-inch pony truck wheels is 20 tons. 

Frames are those of an Atlantic type locomotive, with cast-steel 
members, sills and cross girders. Frames are placed outside of the 
wheels. Truck-wheel base for the drivers is 7 feet 6 inches; for the pony 
truck 6 feet 2 inches; total for each half locomotive is 20 feet 7 inches; 
total for the two-part, articulated locomotive 56 feet 2 inches. 

Motors are single-phase, ]5-cycle, 275-volt, gearless types, provided 
with forced ventilation. The 1-hour rating is 460 h. p. and the con- 




FiG. 128.^Pennsylvania Railroad. Experimental Locomotive, 1909. 
Two single-phase 460-h. p., gearless, quill-mounted motors. Atlantic type locomotive, No. 10,003. 

tinuous rating with forced ventilation is 378 h. p. Each armature 
weighs 9350 pounds. The motor weight, about 19,500 pounds, is spring- 
supported. The armatures are flexibly connected to the drivers in the 
same way as the passenger locomotives of the New York, New Haven 
& Hartford, to be described. No provision is made for direct-cur- 
rent operation. A transformer which reduces the trolley voltage of 
11,000 volts is carried under the floor, but over the pony trucks, where 
it is entirely out of the way. A 25-cycle locomotive built for the same 
work, speed, and grades would have required three motors of approxi- 
mately the same dimensions and would have increased the weight of the 
locomotive from 70 tons to 92 tons, and the cost probably 30 per cent. 
The transformers alone would have cost less, but the control equipment 
would have cost enough more to counterbalance this item. 

Tests showed that the locomotive could carry 100 per cent, overload 
in current for several minutes at a time, when hauling a train with the 
brakes set; and there was practically no sparking at the commutator. 

Tests were also made to compare several types of electric locomotives, 
including the Pennsylvania experimental direct-current locomotives 
already described, and steam locomotives of many types, to determine 



DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 359 

the best electrical and mechanical constants. Tests on track pounding, 
nosing, safety in high-speed service, and on overhead construction were 
conducted on a grand scale. These tests furnished the basis for the 
adoption of the present 157-ton Pennsylvania electric locomotives, used 
for the New York terminal service. 

References. 

S. R. J., June 29, July 20, Oct. 26, 1907. 

Storer: A. I. E. E., June 1907, pages 1390 and 1405. 

Gibbs: E. R. J., June 3, 1911, p. 960. 




Fig. 129. — Pennsylvania Railroad. Experimental Locomotive and Train, 1909. 
Single-phase gearless motors. 

SPOKANE & INLAND EMPIRE. 

Spokane & Inland Empire Railroad ordered from Westinghouse 
Company six 500-h.p. locomotives and eight 680 h.p. locomotives in 
1906, 1907, and 1909, for ordinary freight service between Spokane 
and Colfax, or Moscow, points 80 and 90 miles apart. The single-phase, 
6600-volt, 25-cycle system is used. 

The 500-h.p. locomotives, which weigh 52 tons on 4 pairs of 38- 
inch drivers, have 4 motors with a 4.25 gear ratio. 

The 680-h.p. locomotives, which weigh 72 tons on 4 pairs of 50- 
inch drivers, have 4 motors with a 4.65 gear ratio. These locomo- 
tives are rated on a continuous tractive effort of 16,000 pounds and 
are guaranteed to be able to run up 2 per cent, grades indefinitely without 
overheating. A tractive effort of 36,000 pounds is used in emergencies. 

Motors were at first artificially cooled by fans on the motor shaft; 
but, with the series motor characteristics, the cooling effect decreased as 
the load increased. Forced ventilation from independent motors is used. 



360 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 




Fig. 130. — Spokane and Inland Empire Railroad Lacomotive, 1906. 




Fig. 131. — Spokane and Inland Empire Railroad Locomotive, 1909. 



DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 361 




Fig. 132. — Spokane and Inland Empire Railroad Freight Locomotive, 1910. 
One of eight, 72-ton, 680-h. p., geared, single-phase units. 



PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 680-H. P. LOCOMOTIVE. 



Current 
amperes. 


Power 
factor. 


Speed 
m.p.h. 


Tractive 
effort, lb. 


Power 
h.p. 


Notes or conditions. 


4800 
4000 
3600 
3320 
2840 


.805 
.835 
.840 
.860 
.880 
.895 
.927 
.960 


8.0 
9.6 
10.6 
11.6 
13.5 
15.0 
19.0 
27.0 


39,600 
30,000 
25,500 
22,200 
17,200 
14,400 
8,800 
4,200 


845 
770 
720 
680 
616 
560 
445 
300 


Gear ratio 4 . 65. 
Drivers 50-inch. 
Voltage 6600/220. 
One-hour rating, 680 h.p. 


2560 
2000 


Continuous rating, 560. 


1400 


Motors, 4 No. 151. 



NEW YORK, NEW HAVEN & HARTFORD. 

New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad Company has used 35 
single-phase locomotives, built by the Westinghouse Company, since 
July, 1907 and 41 since 1908, for passenger service between the Grand 
Central Station at New York City and Stamford, Connecticut, on 34 
miles of 4-track road. The company has running rights over the 
tracks of the New York Central from the New York City terminal to 



362 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



Woodlawn, a distance of about 12 miles from the terminal, and is com- 
pelled to use the 660-volt, direct-current system in this section. Beyond, 
the 11,000-volt, single-phase, 25-cycle system is used. 

Specifications required that each passenger locomotive should be able 
to handle a 200-ton train (which was formerly the average weight of 75 
per cent, of the local trains) in the most severe schedule, on a time-table 
corresponding to that of the local express, making 40 second stops every 
2.2 miles, and a schedule speed of over 26 m. p. h. The locomotive was 




Fig. 133. — New York, New Haven and Hartford. Drawing for Passenger Locomotive, 1907. 

to haul this train at 65 to 70 m. p. h., and 250-ton thru express trains at 
60 m. p. h. A 300- to 500-ton train was to be operated at high speeds by 
coupling two locomotives and operating them on the multiple-unit plan. 

Guarantees on the locomotive were that it would have sufficient 
capacity to handle a 200-ton trailing load in continuous local service; 
a 250-ton trailing load in local service as far as Port Chester, 25.6 miles; 
and a 300-ton trailing load in express service, to New Rochelle, 16.6 miles. 
The New Haven locomotives were designed, primarily for express service. 
See proceedings of A. I. E. E., Dec, 1908, p. 1693. 

In service, one New Haven locomotive handles easily a load of 300 
tons, and 360 tons have been hauled when necessary. One locomotive 



DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 363 

ordinarily handles a 6-car train, making all the stops from Grand Central 
Station to either New Rochelle or to Stamford and two locomotives 
ordinaril}^ handle a G- to 10-car train making all stops. Local trains of 
7 to 8 cars between Woodlawn and New Rochelle make stops every L4 
miles. Express trains of 9 to 12 cars hauled by two locomotives make 
12 stops between Woodlawn and Stamford, 33.4 miles. Express trains 
do not use the average power required by local trains with their local 
service stops. Double heading is required on from 15 to 25 per cent, of 
the New Haven trains. 

Locomotive frames, of steel, 36 feet long, were built by Baldwin. 
The longitudinal members of the frame are deep plate girders reinforced 
at the top by channels and at the bottom by heavy angles and plates. 



Fig. 134. — New York, New Faven and Hartford. Passenger Motor Truck and Gearless Motor. 

The transoms are riveted to the frames, and braced by gusset plates 
riveted to the bottom flanges of two sets of channels. The drawbar effort 
is transmitted thru the bolsters, center pins, and the side frames to deep 
box girders joining the end frames. 

Two trucks of the swivel pattern are mounted on 62-inch drivers. 
The truck centers are 14 feet 6 inches. The truck wheel base is 8 feet. 
Center bearings are 18 inches in diameter. Weights on the journals 
are carried by semi-elliptic springs. 

Pony wheels added to each locomotive in 1908 improved the riding 
qualities and the safety at high speeds. The total wheel base was 
increased 100 inches. The pony truck wheels are 33 inches in diameter 
and are carried on an extension frame rigidly bolted to the main truck 
frame, without a bolster. To provide radial movement of the pony 
truck wheels, a bevel brass wedge is placed over the journal box of the 
pony truck which allows journal box, axle, and wheels to move laterally 



364 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

between the pedestal jaws of the frames; but in so doing, they are met 
by the resistance in a bearing plate above the journal box. When the 
pony truck wheels move sidewise they lift, thru the bevel-bearing wedge, 
all the weight carried by the equalizer bars, and this tends to restore 
the pony truck wheels to their normal central position. 

Weight of the first locomotive built was 89 tons, altho the estimated 
weight was 76 tons. The additional weight put into the locomotive, 
including 5 tons of third-rail and direct-current apparatus, mechanical 



,// 




Fig. 135. — New York, New Haven and Hartford Passenger Locomotive, 1909. 

parts, steam heaters, fuel oil, and 2 pony trucks, has brought the weight 
up to 102 tons, of which 77 tons are on drivers. 

Motors are of the compensated, single-phase, "series type. Four are 
used, each of 240-h. p., 1-hour capacity and 200-h. p. continuous capacity 
on forced draft. On direct current the rating is about 50 per cent, 
higher. Voltage for motors is 220 on alternating current, and 300 on 
direct current, see illustration, Figure 44. 

Speed of the motors on rated load is 220 r. p. m. and of locomotive is 
40.5 m. p. h. The maximum speed of the locomotive is about 75 m. p. h. 
Commutator speed at 60 m. p. h. is only 3000 f. p. m. Forced ventilation 
is used for cooling and to keep out the dirt. 

Frames and fields are split horizontally. There are no projecting 
poles. Field windings are uniformly distributed. 



DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 3G5 

Armatures are gearless and are not mounted on the shaft but are 
built up on a quill thru which the axle passes, with a 5/8-inch clearance. 

Motor mounting is well arranged. The field frame is mounted on 
bearings which surround the armature quill. The field is suspended 
from the frame of the locomotive by means of four 1 1/4-inch rods, 
and only 1000 pounds of the field weight is carried on the quill. The 
motor frame is anchored to the truck, both above and below the axle by 
these rods, which permit vertical or side motion but prevent excessive 
bumping strains. The entire weight of the motor is carried on springs. 




25000 38500 



3Q500 



38500 



38500 25000 



Fig. 136. — New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad Locomotive, 1909. 

Forty-one used on New York Division in passenger service. 102-tons, 960-h. p., 1-phase, 11,000- 

220-volt motors. Gearless, quill-mounted type. 



Armature connection to the driver is by means of a spider at the ends 
of the quill, from which spider 7 round pins project parallel to the shaft 
into corresponding pockets in the hub of the drivers. Around each pin 
is placed a coil spring about 8 inches in diameter, consisting of 10 turns, 
progressively eccentric, of 1/2x1 /2-inch steel. These springs are con- 
tained between 2 steel bushings, the smaller of which slips over the 
pin and the larger fits in the pocket in the wheel. They carry the entire 
weight of the motor and transmit the torque of the motor. A vertical 
movement of about 3/4 inch is allowed for track variation. Hammer 
blow from the armature, on uneven track, is avoided. Pulsating torque 
is prevented by the spiral springs. Additional springs placed outside 
of the driving pins steady the side play. 

Connections and control of motor circuits are simple. The 4 
armatures are arranged in 2 groups, and 2 armatures are connected 
permanently in series and controlled as a unit. During direct-current 
acceleration the 2 motor units are connected in series and then in parallel. 
During alternating-current acceleration, each motor receives power for 
different speeds by variable voltage from a step-down transformer, no 
resistance being used. The double control equipment is a handicap. 



366 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



On direct current the fields are in series with their respective arma- 
tures, and they are shunted for high speed; on alternating current the 
fields of the motors are placed in parallel to decrease the field reactance 
and also the magnetism per armature ampere. (The reactance varies as 
the square of the number of field turns on the field, while the strength 
of the field varies directly as the number of field turns). 



^ 


u 












s' 


^^^'- ■ 






H 














^-"^ 




%> 


r 




,-^- 


r^--^ 


_-^ 






< 




^^_ 




1 




t "^ 


r - ^ 














i 


/" ^. 


m^ 


^^ 


^ 










p- 


1 






HH 




fei 


^fefe-- 


^-~-^\ 






1 

1 






1 




1 


P ' 






^v 


iPiffi 






H^W^ 


.-^ 


.m^ 


^^^^^ ^.,.--. 


^ 


>r^ 



Fig. 137. — New York, New Haven and Hartford Passenger Locomotive and Four-car Train. 



CHART ON LOCOMOTIVE PERFORMANCE. 

Passenger Locomotives on New York Division. New York to Stamford. 



A.-C. performance. 


Amperes 


D.-C. performance. 


Speed in miles per 


hour 




- -i^peed in miles per hour. 


Control steps. 


Control steps. 


1. 


2. 


3. 


4. 


5. 


6. 


Series. 


Shunt 1.: Shunt 2. 


Multiple. 














per motor. 












3 


13 


24 


31 


37 


2000 


19 


24 


33 


45 




8 


19 


28 


35 


40 


1800 


20 


25 


35 


46 


4 


14 


24 


32 


39 


45 


1600 


21 


26 


37 


47 


9 


20 


30 


37 


43 


49 


1400 


22 


28 


40 


49 


17 


26 


35 


42 


48 


55 


1200 


23 


30 


44 


51 


25 


33 


42 


49 


55 


62 


1000 


25 


34 


49 


54 


29 


37 


47 


54 


60 


67 


900 


26 


36 


52 


56 


35 


43 


52 


60 


67 


74 


800 


27 


39 


56 


58 


40 


49 


59 


67 


74 


81 


700 


29 


42 


61 


62 


46 


56 


66 


75 


83 


92 


600 


32 


45 


67 


67 



DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 367 

Charts on locomotive performance are placed in the front of each 
passenger locomotive, over the controller. A glance at the control step 
and at the ammeter gives the running speed. 

In alternating-current performance the speed for local and express 
trains is nominally 60 m. p. h., but the writer has repeatedly observed 
speeds up to 72 miles per hour when lost time was being regained. 
Control step No. 6 is commonly used and, with a 6-coach train, about 
1000 amperes, corresponding to 62 m. p. h., is an ordinary reading. 

In direct-current performance, 30 m. p. h. is the speed allowed by the 
New York Central rules, between the Grand Central terminal at Forty- 
fourth Street and Ninetieth Street, or in passing any station; and 45 
m. p. h. is the maximum speed allowed in the direct-current zone. Con- 
trol step marked No. 2 is used for maximum speed, and the meter reading 
is commonly 1200 to 1100 amperes. The full speed for which the motors 
were designed is not used, due to the speed restrictions imposed. 



PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVE. 




4000 
3000 
2400 
2260 
2200 
2000 
1720 
1600 
1400 
1200 
1000 



.725 
.810 
.842 
.860 
.868 
.890 
.915 
.926 
.940 
.937 
.970 



21.0 
30.5 
38.3 
40.5 
41.5 
45.0 
51.5 
55.0 
61.0 
68.7 
77.5 



19,700 
13,300 
9,800 
8,900 
8,600 
7,400 
5,900 
5,200 
4,200 
3,200 
2,400 



1100 
1080 
1000 
960 
950 
890 
800 
760 
680 
585 
495 



Four gearless motors, No. 130. 
Voltage 11000/220. 
Series-parallel operation. 
One-hour rating, 960 h. p. 



Continuous rating, 800 h.p. 
Drivers 62-inch. 



Operating notes for service on the New York Division: 

Summer schedule calls for about 166 trains per week-day, and tlie autumn 
schedule calls for 136. 

Electric locomotive miles per engine failure were 14,000, to be compared with 
steam locomotive miles per engine failure of 6250. 

Average miles per month per locomotive owned exceeds 4000. See page 280. 

The commutators, while black, are in a very good condition. Brushes make 
from 22,000 miles on an average, and 34,000 miles as a maximum. Commutators 
average about 95,000 locomotive miles between turnings. 

Tire wear is the principal reason for taking locomotives out of service. Curves 
on the New York division are many and severe. 

Water on the track, from high winds and tides, has at times damaged the wiring. 
One-fifth of the locomotives, on several occasions during 1908 and 1909, were com- 



368 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



pelled to run thru water 20 inches deep, for long distances at full speed. The salt 
water in the motor casings and ducts could have been dried out by the application 
of the lowest alternating current voltages if the alternating current had been avail- 
able; but the trouble occurred on the 660- volt, direct-current, third-rail section, and 
the wiring of first motor of the four in the series would ground. 




Fig. 138. — Two New York, New Haven and Hartford Passenger Locomotives and 15-car Train. 

Inspection of electric locomotives are made every 12 days, or every 
1600 locomotive miles. Steam locomotives require inspection every 
100 miles, and must be sent to the back shop for overhaul every 2 
months, or about every 40,000 to 60,000 miles, depending upon the service 
and the water used. Electric locomotives seldom require a general 
overhaul. The time required for inspection is 4 to 12 hours. Of the 41 
passenger locomotives, 3 are in for inspection each day, in summer. 

Maintenance expense, which includes all repairs, was at first 7 cents 
per locomotive mile, but this has now been reduced to 5 cents, of which 
3.5 cents are for labor and 1.5 cents for material. 

Locomotive troubles have been detailed and explained by Mr. Murray, 
Electrical Engineer for the road, to the A. I. E. E., Dec, 1908; Apr., 1911. 
The new designs had many minor troubles, as was expected, but they 
disappeared in time. The most wonderful thing about the whole record 
was the absolute success of the new single-phase motor. 



FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVES 1909-1911. 

Three locomotives are being tried out in freight service. These differ 
from the 41 passenger locomotives in that the motors are mounted above 
and either geared or crank and side-rod connected to the driving axles, 
instead of being flexibly mounted on the driver axles. The 2-4-4-2 wheel 



DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 369 




Fig. 139. — New York, New Haven and Hartford Geared Freight Locomotive, 1909. [ 




Fig. 140. — New York, Niew Haven & Hartford Geared Locomotive. 
Number 071 hauling the 12-coiich "Boston Express." 



24 



370 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



arrangement is used. These electric freight locomotives on the New 
York division have much larger capacity than the steam locomotives. 

Specifications required each electric freight locomotive to be capable 
of hauling a freight train, having a maximum weight of 1500 tons, at a 
speed of 35 m. p. h. on level track with 6 pounds per ton resistance; 
or, when used in heaviest passenger service, to haul an 800-ton passen- 
ger train at a maximum speed of 45 m. p. h. and a schedule speed 
of 40 m. p. h. in limited service, i. e. without stops; or to haul a 12-car, 
800-ton express-passenger train over the 73 miles between New York and 
New Haven in 2 hours and 12 minutes, allowing a total of 5 minutes for 
stops; or to haul a 350-ton train in local passenger service, making all 
stops, the average of which is not to exceed 45 seconds, over the 73 miles 
in 2 hours and 45 minutes. Tractive effort was to exceed 40,000 pounds. 

GEARED FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVE 071. 

Trucks and running gear are planned in accordance with a design 
patented by S. M. Vauclain, July 6, 1909. This is described as an articu- 
lated locomotive in which the two truck frames are connected by an 
intermediate drawbar, one truck to have a rotative motion about its 



D 



D 



D D D D D n 



D 






m. 



^^ :1^^ 




4600O 



48000 



4-8000 



Fig. 141. — New York, New Haven and Hartford Geared Freight Locomotive, 1909. 

One used on New York Division. 140-ton, 1260-h. p., 1-phase, 25-cycle, 11, 000-300- volts. Four 

geared motors. Gear ratio 2.32. Forced ventilation. Freight service. 



center pin, while the other has a fore-and-aft motion, as well as a rota- 
tive motion, to compensate for the angular positions of the truck and 
drawbars on curves. Leading wheels are mounted in radial-swing 
trucks of the Rushton type. The cab is carried thru springs on friction 
plates at the ends of the trucks, not on the truck center pins. This 
design also prevents periodic vibration or nosing. 

Wheel loads are equalized as in steam locomotive practice, the springs 



DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 371 

of the leading wheels being connected to the driving springs by equalizing 
beams. One of the trucks is cross-equalized under the center of the 
locomotive. The frame is spring-supported by the cross-equalizer on 
each side of the center line. This arrangement promotes steady riding, 
and tends to prevent side rolling at high speed. 

Truck wheel base of geared freight locomotive is 38 feet 6 inches; 
rigid wheel bases are 7 feet; total wheel base for each truck is 14 feet; 
truck centers are 24.5 feet; length between couplers is 48 feet. Drivers 
are 63-inch, and pony wheels 36-inch. 

Frames are placed outside the wheels, and are braced transversely 
under the center of the locomotive by heavy steel castings provided with 
draw pockets in which the intermediate drawbar is seated. This bar 
transmits from one truck to the other the full tractive force developed 
by the motors of a leading truck. 

Motors for the geared freight locomotive consist of 4 single-phase, 
conductively compensated, series, 300-volt, 1000-ampere, 0.93 power- 
factor, 315-h.p. units. Each motor with forced ventilation is rated 
300-volt, 930-ampere, 0.93-power factor, and 280 h. p. Two motors are 
used in series. On 350 volts the rating is, of course, materially higher. 

The motors have 12 poles built in a solid frame. The diameter of the 
armature is 39 1/2 inches and the width of the core is 13 inches. The 
peripheral speed of the armature is high, the armature having the 
diameter used in the passenger locomotives. 

Weight of each motor with gear and gear case and axle bearing 
but without the 1400-pound quill is 6050 pounds. 

Gearing has a ratio of 2.32 and teeth have 1 .75 pitch. Gears are placed 
at each end of the armature shaft. The unit stresses in the gears are 
much lower than in ordinar}^ large railway motors. Doubt is expressed 
as to whether there is ample length along the shaft to properly distrib- 
ute the wear of the teeth, and as to the sufficiency of gears in high- 
speed service. 

Control apparatus is of the electro-pneumatic type, designed for use 
with either 11,000 volts alternating current or 600 volts direct current. 
When operated on alternating current, the motors are grouped in multi- 
ple and the control is obtained entirely by changing the connections to 
various voltage taps on the main transformer. On direct current the 
motors are first grouped in series and then 2 in series and 2 in parallel, 
in combination with various resistance steps. Any one of the motors 
may be cut out. There are 13 running voltages on the controller or 
double the number of steps required for passenger service, and any speed 
can be used continually, with the maximum tractive effort. Two or 
more locomotives may be coupled and operated from one master controller. 

Motor mounting is arranged over the axles, and solidly on the tru(;k 



372 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



frames. Each end of the armature shaft is provided with a pinion mesh- 
ing with gears mounted on a quill surrounding the axle and carried in 
bearings on the motor frame, similar to the usual axle bearings. The 
quills are provided with 6 bearing arms on each end, which project into 
spaces provided between the spokes in the driving wheels. Each of 
these arms is connected to an end of a helical spring, the other end of 
the springs being connected to the driving wheels. This arrangement 
smooths out the torque pulsations, and it allows for 1 1/2-inch vertical 




Fig. 142. — New York, New Haven and Hartford Geared Freight Locomotive, 1909. 
Motors and truck for locomotive number 071. 

movement of the axles. In addition, flexibility is provided between the 
quill and motor shafts, to equalize the torque on the gears. The center 
of gravity of the motors is high. The transmission of strains and 
shocks from the track to the motors is eliminated. 



PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF GEARED FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVES. 



Current 
amperes. 


Power 
factor. 


Speed 
m.p.h. 


Tractive 
effort, lb. 


Power 
h.p. 


Notes or conditions. 


8000 


.660 


16.5 


36,900 


1640 


Voltage 11,000/300. 


6400 


.750 


21.5 


27,000 


1540 


Drivers 63-incli. 


4800 


.835 


28.2 


17,600 


1340 


Gear ratio 2.32. 


4400 


.855 


30.3 


15,600 


1260 


One-hour rating, 1260. 


3760 


.885 


35.0 


12,000 


1120 


Continuous rating, 1120. 


3200 


.910 


40.8 


8,800 


960 


Motors, 4 No. 403. 


2800 


.930 


46.0 


6,880 


845 


Locomotive, No. 071. 



Tests have been made on the geared freight locomotives as follows; 
A 2100-ton freight train was started and hauled up a 0.3 per cent 
grade with a 3-degree curve. 

A 1600-ton freight train was accelerated at the rate of 0.2 m.p.h. 



DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 373 

p. s., or to a speed of 12 m.p.h. in 1 minute; and an 800-ton train 
was accelerated at a rate of 0.4 m.p.h. p. s. 

A maximum tractive effort of 51,000 lb. was developed. 

SIDE-ROD LOCOMOTIVE 070. 

A side-rod locomotive was built in 1910 by the Westinghouse Co. 
for service on the New York Division. 

Specifications for the side-rod locomotive were the same as those 
detailed for the geared freight locomotive. 

The design is of the articulated double-cab type. Each half com- 
prises 2 pairs of driving wheels and 2 leading pony truck wheels, mounted 
on a forged frame of the locomotive type. Crankshafts are placed across 




Fig. 143. — New Haven Freight Locomotive, Crank and Side Rod Type. Side Elevation. 
One-half of locomotive is shown. Horse power, 1346. Wheel base, 43 feet 6 inches. 



the side frames, and 57 inches ahead of the front driving axles, which carry 
on each end a crank arm and counterweight casting to which a motor 
crankshaft above is connected by means of rods. The two drivers on 
each side are coupled to the crankshaft crank pin by locomotive side 
rods of the ordinary type. The driving mechanism and frames are sim- 
ilar to those on Pennsylvania side-rod locomotives, already described. 
Motors are single-phase. Two are used per locomotive. With 
forced ventilation the one-hour rating of each is about 673 h. p. They 
are arranged for either alternating-current or direct-current service. 
Either motor may be operated separately. The motor shaft is 91 in. 
above the rail. Motors are slow-speed units, 206 r. p. m. at 35 m.p.h.. 



374 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

with 57-inch drivers. Armature diameter is 76 inches. Core has no 
air ducts and is 13 inches wide. The motor frame is built up of steel 
plate and standard shapes, in place. of the usual steel casting, to gain 
in rigidity. The rotor is mounted on a quill, and the rotor spider is 
in 2 parts, between which the spider of the quill shaft is built. The 
pulsating armature torque is transmitted thru heavy spiral springs at 
the ends of the spider arms, to smooth out the mechanical effort. Motor 
transformers are air-cooled, of 150 0-kv. a. capacity. 

GEARED LOCOMOTIVE 069. 

A second geared locomotive for main-line freight service was placed 
in service in 1911. 

Specifications were those detailed above for freight locomotives. 

The design embodies eight 42-inch drivers on a rigid driver wheel 
base, and four leading and four trailing pony truck wheels. The pony 
truck is not pivoted at a bolster, on its vertical center line, but is con- 
nected to a V-frame. The pivotal point of the V, and of the pony 
truck, is at the apex of the V, within the rigid truck wheel base. 

Drivers with axle can be removed from the locomotive frame by 
lowering the wheels, as in steam locomotive practice. 

Motors are eight per locomotive. It was found that eight geared, 
single-phase motors per locomotive made a lighter locomotive than 
could be built with two or four motors per locomotive. Armatures are 
the same type as those used for motor-car trains, already described. A 
single pinion on each armature shaft is connected to a gear wheel which 
is flexibly mounted on each driver shaft. The motor voltage is 235, or 
470 per pair of motors, and the motors are permanently connected in 
series in pairs. 

Framing for the fields of each pair of armatures are of the double 
horse-shoe shape, mounted rigidly on the locomotive frame. 

Weight of this single-phase locomotive. No. 069, is 116 tons, yet this 
latest design has 40,000-pounds drawbar pull and greater capacity than 
the other freight locomotives described above. 

GEARED SWITCHER LOCOMOTIVES. 

Switcher locomotives are in service at the Harlem River, 62-mile 
freight yards, electrified in 1911. Tests showed that a 600-h.p. 80-ton 
unit could handle the yard work. 

The design embodies two trucks of the heaviest articulated type, 
suitable for heavy buffing strains, for classification and yard work. It 
is to be substituted" for a steam locomotive which uses an average of 
4600 pounds of water per hour, or at 40 pounds per h. p. hour, averages 



DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 375 

115 h. p.; but since these locomotives develop power for 36.7 per cent, of 
the time the average power while working is 313 h. p. Switcher electric 
locomotives with 450-h. p. continuous rating will more than handle the 
work. The trailing load is 450; the maximum speed, 26 m. p. h. 

Motors are four, rated 150-h. p. each for one hour, plain, single-phase 
units of the quill, spring-drive, double-geared type, similar to those on 
New Haven motor cars, already described under ^^ Motor-car Trains." 

COMPARATIVE DATA ON NEW HAVEN ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES. 



Number in service 41 

Number i 01 to 041 

Service ' Passenger 

Wheel order | 2-4-4-2 

Motor connection Mounted on 

axle quill. 



Driver diameter 

Pony wheel diameter . 

Weight, total 

Weight on drivers 

Weight of motors . . . . 
Weight of armature . . 

No. of motors 

One-hour h.p 

Continuous h.p 

Motor voltage 

Motor shaft above rail. 
Center of gravity, do. . 

Diam. of motor 

Diam. of armature. . . 

Length of core 

Gear ratio 

Rigid truck wheel base. 
Total truck wheel base. 
Locomotive wheel base 
Length over all 



63-inch. 

33-inch. 

102 tons. 

77 tons. 

33.4 tons. 
5850 lb. 

4-No. 130 
960 
800 
220 

31. 5 in. 
51.0 in. 
58. 5 in. 
39.5 in. 
18.0 in. 

zero 

8'-0" 

12^-2^' 

30'-10'' 

36'-4'' 



1 
071 

Freight 
2-4-4-2 
Geared to 
quill. 

63-inch. 

36-inch. 
140 tons. 

96 tons. 

38.0 tons, 
6050 lb. 
4- No. 403 
1260 
1120 
300 
63.785 in. 

.... in. 

58.5 in. 

39.5 in. 

13.0 in. 
2.32 

14'-0'' 
38'-6'' 
48'-0'' 



1 

070 

Freight 

2-4-4-2 

Crank and 

jackshaft. 

57-inch 
36-inch 
35 tons 
92 tons 
41.6 tons 
19000 lb. 

2-No. ... 
1350 
1130 
300 
91.0 in. 
.... in. 
102.0 in. 
76.0 in. 
13.0 in. 
zero 
8'-0'' 
18'-0" 
43'-6'' 
53'-3" 



1 

069 

Freight 

4-4-4-4 

Geared to 

quill. 



116 tons 



8-No. 409 
1396 



235 



15 

0200 
Switch. 
0-4-4-0 

Geared 
to axle 

quill. 

63 in. 



80 tons. 

80 tons. 

26.0 



4-NO.401 

600 

450 

190 

60.0 in. 



ll'-O" 
39'-0" 
39'-0" 
46'-8" 



7'-0" 
23'-6" 
23'-6" 
37'-0" 



References on New York New Haven & Hartford Railroad Locomotives. 

Passenger Locomotives: Order for 25, S. R. J., Sept. 9, 1905, p. 638. 

Locomotive Controversy: Mr. Westinghouse, Mr. Sprague, and others, with reference 

to New York Central-New Haven equipment. S. R. J., and Elec. World, 

Dec, 1905; Ry. Age Gazette, Dec. 22, 1905, p. 579. 
Descriptive: Plans for 72-ton units, S. R. J., Feb. 17, 1906; 85-ton units, S. R. J., 

March 24, 1906; Drawings of 100-ton units, S. R. J., Aug. 17 and 24, 1907; 

Pony wheels and frames, E. R. J., Nov. 21, 1908, p. 1424; Motor Characteristics, 

S. R. J., April 14, 1906. 
Lamme: Descriptive; Elec. Journal, April, 1906. 



376 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



Motors, for Suburban M. U. Trains, S. R. J., Dec. 12, 1908. 
Storer: Performance curves; A. I. E. E., Dec. 11, 1908, p. 1694; S. R. J., Apr. 14, 

1906; E. R. J., Dec. 12, 1908, p. 1605. ' 
Murray: Steam and Electric Performance; A. I. E. E., Jan. 25, 1907. Log of New 

Haven Electrification; A. I. E. E., Dec, 1908; E. R. J., Dec. 19, 1908; Steam 

Locomotive Fuel and Maintenance; A. I. E. E., Jan., 1907, p. 148; Analysis 

of Electrification, A.I. E. E., April and June, 1911. 
Sprague: Some Facts and Problems Bearing on Electric Trunk Line Operation. 

Criticism of New Haven Locomotives; A. I. E. E., May, 1907; July 1, 1910. 
Geared Freight Locomotive: Drawings, E. R. J., Sept. 25, 1909; May 7, 1910, p. 829; 

Elec. Journal, Feb., 1910; Ry. and Loco. Engrg., April, 1910; Murray: A. I. E. E. 

April, 1911, pp. 732 and 760. 
Side-rod Freight Locomotive: E. R. J., May'7, 1910, p. 830. 
Switching Locomotive: A. I. E. E., May 1911, p. 760; Ry. Age, July 21, 1911, p. 119. 




Fig. 144. — Boston and Maine Railroad. Geared Locomotive. 



BOSTON & MAINE RAILROAD. 

Boston & Maine Railroad, in the electrification of its Hoosac Tunnel 
in 1911, uses 5 locomotives. They are similar to the New Haven geared 
freight locomotives No. 071, except that two have a gear ratio of 4.14 
in place of 2.32. The design, efficiency, and capacity were raised. 

The straight 11,000-volt, 25-cycle single-phase system is used, 
without the direct-current complications of the controller and third rail. 



DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 377 
PERFORI^IANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF BOSTON & MAINE LOCOMOTIVE. 



Current 
amperes. 


Power 
factor. 


Speed 
m.p.h. 


Tractive 
effort, lb. 


Power 
h.p. 


Notes or conditions. 


8000 
6000 
5000 
4250 
4000 


.82 
.88 
.90 
.92 
.93 
.94 
96 


12.2 
15.1 
17.2 
19.2 
20.0 
21.0 
25.0 
28.6 


63,500 
43,000 
32,800 
26,000 
23,000 
21,000 
14,000 
10,000 


2060 
1740 
1520 
1340 
1230 
1180 
935 
760 


Voltage 11000/300. 
Gear ratio 4. 14. 
Drivers 63-inch. 
One hour h.p. 1340. 


3750 
3000 


Continuous h.p. 1180 


2500 


.97 


Motors, 4 No. 403 





gto^^JL^r- 


M 


P^' Al ■ '''■ A 


1 •■ ■ ■ ■ „. , , : ::::•.:; _■,.... 


± jll&v. 




1 *■•'--. 











Fig. 



145. — VisALiA Electric Locomotive of 1906. 
Fifteen-cycle motor.s. Swivel trucks 



VISALIA ELECTRIC RAILROAD. 



Visalia Electric Railroad, owned by Southern Pacific Co., purchased 
a swivel-truck type electric locomotive in 1908. It is in service between 
Visalia and Lemon Cove, California,over 36 miles of track. 



378 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



Weight is 47 tons all on drivers. Wheel arrangement is 0-4-4-0, 
drivers are 36-inch; rigid wheel base is 7 feet 4 inches. 

Motors are single-phase, 15-cycle, the first to be used in America. 
Four 125-h.p. motors are used. Gear ratio is 3.89. See Figure 37. 

Tests were made by starting a 312-ton trailing load on a 10-degree 
curve, at the foot of a 1 per cent, grade, and hauling the load up the 
grade; following this test 2 Southern Pacific passenger cars were attached 
and the tests were repeated by pushing the train around the curve 
and up the grade. Elec. Ry. Journ., Jan. 15, 1901, p. 101. 

GRAND TRUNK RAILWAY. 

St. Clair tunnel and terminal of the Grand Trunk Railway has used 
six 720-h. p. electric locomotives since May, 1908, in and near the St. 
Clair tunnel which is under the Detroit River between Sarnia, Ontario, 
and Port Huron, Michigan. 




Fig. 146. — Grand Trunk Railway Locomotivje for St. Clair Tunnel, 1906. 
Six units, 66-ton, 720-h. p. Three 25-cycle, 3000-235-volt, single-phase, geared motors. Tunnel 

and yard service. 



The tunnel is single-track, is 19 feet in diameter, and has a length 
of 6032 feet. The route electrified is 3.66 miles long and including ter- 
minals the mileage is 12. Grades of 2 per cent, for 3000 feet run out of 
of the tunnel. 



DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 379 

The system used is the single-phase, 25-cycle, with a 3300-volt Hue. 
The tunnel was small, and 6000 volts could hardly be used with safety 
nor was it necessary. The system was chosen by the consulting en- 
gineer, B. J. Arnold, on the score of economy of operation. 

Specifications called for a locomotive with a normal drawbar pull of 
about 50,000 pounds without sanded track and without slipping the 
drivers. Two locomotives were to start a 1000-ton freight train on the 
2 per cent, grades in the tunnel without taking the slack out of the 
drawbars and without injury to the commutator or motors. 

Weight of the locomotive is about 66 tons, on six 62-inch drivers. 
Rigid and total wheel base is 16 feet, divided 6 feet 3 inches and 9 feet 
9 inches. Weight is equally distributed on axles. 

Tractive effort is 3000 pounds at 30 miles per hour; 19,000 pounds 
at 13.3 m. p. h., at rated load; and 25,000 pounds at 10 m. p. h. 
Each locomotive on a test developed 45,000 pounds drawbar puT (not 
tractive effort) before slipping the drivers. 

Speed with 500-ton passenger trains varies from a maximum of 25 
m. p. h. on the level to 20 m. p. h. up-grade; and with 1000-ton freight 
trains it is 12 m. p. h. in haulage up the 2 per cent, grade. 

Power plant contains two 3-phase 1250-kw. turbo-generator units, 
one of which handles the load. There are four 400-h. p. boilers with 
double the usual steam storage space, to handle the fluctuating load. 

Power required, as shown by tests, is 600 amperes, 3000 volts, and 
1500 kw. during 4 to 5 m'nutes, for a train with 1020 gross tons 
on a 2 per cent, grade at 11.3 miles per hour. If the resistance, in the 
tunnel, is 10 pounds per ton, the h.p. is then 1020x50x11.3/375 or 1540. 
The combined efficiency of transmission and contact lines, motor, and 
gearing, is 1540x. 746/ 1500 or 77 per cent. 

Motors are 235-volt, 240-h. p., or 220-volt, 225-h. p. units, with twin 
gears and a 5.31 reduction. Weight of armature is 5600 pounds, total 
weight per motor is 14,500 pounds. Motor frames are of the box type, 
and forced ventilation is provided. Armature is 30 inches in diameter, 
and the core is 14 3/4 inches wide. (See Fig. 38.) 

Speed control is secured by voltage variation, by taps from windings 
of the auto-transformer. Sections are small so as not to cause a large 
increase of current, or in drawbar pull, while changing taps. 

The road is said to handle thru its single-track tunnel the heaviest 
railroad traffic in the world. With the constantly increasing traffic, at 
times the four 118-ton steam locomotives were taxed in handling the 
tonnage, and the capacity of the road was throttled by the tunnel. The 
installation of the six 720-h. p., 66-ton electric locomotives provides 
a traffic capacity about three times larger than the actual demands. 



380 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF GRAND TRUNK LOCOMOTIVES. 



Current 
amperes. 


Power 
factor. 


Speed, 
m.p.h. 


Tractive 
effort lb. 


Power 
h.p. 


Notes or conditions. 


4800 
4000 
3600 
3000 
2400 


.800 
.854 
.880 
.905 
.940 
.950 
.960 
.970 
.980 


7.7 
9.4 
10.4 
12.1 
14.6 
15.5 
17.2 
20.6 
25.3 


47,700 
36,000 
30,300 
22,300 
15,200 
13,800 
11,000 
7,600 
4,800 


980 
900 
840 
720 
590 
570 
510 
417 
325 


Motors per locomotive, 3. 
Drivers, 62-inch. 
Parallel operation. 
One-hour rating, 720 h.p. 


2250 
2000 


Continuous rating, 570 h.p. 


1600 
1200 


Gear ratio 5.31. 
Voltage 3000/235. 



"Two single-phase 66-ton electric locomotives handle 1000-ton trains, where the 
118-ton steam locomotives handled 750-ton trains. The electric locomotives climb 
the 2 per cent, grades at 10 miles per hour while the steam locomotives were barely 
able to pull out at 3 miles per hour. The running time from summit to summit is now 
10 minutes and the average number of cars per train is 27.3, while under steam con- 
ditions the average time was 15 minutes and the average number of cars 19.7." 
H. L. Kirker, Electrical Review, March 6, 1909, p. 423. 

"Train movements thru the tunnel average 26 freight trains per 24 hours, with 
an average tonnage of 924 per train; and 15 passenger trains per 24 hours with an 
average tonnage of 281 per train. In freight service two electric locomotives are 
coupled; in passenger service one locomotive is used. Passenger train and freight 
business are handled without any interruption." J. F. Jones, Supt. Terminals, 1910. 

Economy has been obtained with the electric service. Coal cost 
with electrical operation was 39 per cent, of the coal cost under steam 
operation. Run of mine and slack Indiana coals are used in power 
stations, in place of anthracite on steam locomotives. Total service 
operating charges are 60 per cent, of the charges under steam operation. 
Total service operating charges plus fixed charges were 84.5 per cent, 
of the charges under steam operation; and, after adding depreciation, 
the^total operating charges are equal. This is a wonderful result from 
the first two years' service; with the great investment for a short mileage. 
Maintenance and repairs of locomotives were reduced 45 per cent. 

Service notes show that 4 of the 6 locomotives are used regularly. 
Locomotive inspections are made every third day. Life of pinions is 
60,000 miles. Mileage of each locomotive per month averages 2700. 

Safety has been gained with electrical operation. On account of 
the large number of trains and the severe braking required on long 2 
per cent, grades, trains will break in two, with steam or electric operation. 
In the event of a train breaking in two with steam, the time necessary 
to recouple exceeded the interval within which the steam locomotive 



DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 381 

could be kept in the tunnel without suffocating the train crew. This 
trouble is obviated with electric power. It is often necessary for the 
electric locomotive to start a train on the long 2 per cent, tunnel grades 
and this is done without first taking the slack out of the train. 

References on Grand Trunk Railway Sarnia Tunnel Locomotives. 

Single-phase Traction: S. R. J. and E. W., Jan. 20, 1906. 

Muralt, in criticism: S. R. J., Feb. 17, 1906. 

Descriptive: Elec. Journal, April, 1906; Oct., 1908. S. R. J., Nov. 14, 1908. 

Power House: Power, June 29, 1909; E. R. J., Nov. 14, 1908, p. 1364. 

Kirker: Elec. Review, March 6, 1909, p. 423. 

Operation and Shop Methods: S. R. J., April 2, 1910. 




Fig. 147. ^General Electric Single-phase, Side Rod Electric Locomotive, 1909. 



n 



D 



i g(7)iOvj4ij_;':g^' 






D 



miXi^i 



2f-a 



27-8 



6^-6 
73-8 



5-6-J««-4-6i<- 6-ro^6-4-7^ 



24-8 
27-8 



Fig. 148. — General Electric Locomotive. 
Geared .side-rod type. Proposed in 1910 for mountain freight service. 



GENERAL ELECTRIC SINGLE-PHASE. 



General Electric Company built an experimental single-phase loco- 
motive in 1909, which had some distinguishing features. 

Frames and running gear were similar to those of a Pacific type 
steam locomotive with the usual side rods connect'ng the drivers. 



382 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Each motor was crank-connected to a jackshaft, set across the locomo- 
tive frames, and connected to the driving wheel side rods. 

Motors were two 400-h. p., 15-cycle units set up on the locomotive 
frames. The design was for passenger service, to deliver 15,000 pounds 
tractive effort, at 20 m. p. h., but to have variable speed, up to 50 m. p. h. 
Elec. Ry. Journ., May 8, 1909. 

A geared and side -rod locomotive design, outlined in the accompany- 
ing drawing, was presented at the annual convention of the A. L E. E., 
July, 1910. The design embraces: Spring-suspended motor weight; in- 
dependent operation of driving axles requiring the driving of only one set 
of wheels at one time; and high weight efficiency due to the introduction 
of gearing. 

SHAWINIGAN FALLS TERMINAL RAILWAY. 

Shawinigan Falls Terminal Railway, about 21 miles long, runs from 
Three Rivers to Shawinigan Falls, half way between Montreal and Quebec. 

One General Electric single-phase, 4-motor, swivel-truck, 50-ton 
locomotive was obtained in 1909 for freight shunting service. 

The locomotive is designed for operation on either a 15-cycle or 
30-cycle, 6000-volt single-phase circuit. 

Motors are rated 150 h. p., 800 amperes, 225 volts on 15 cycles, or 
650 amperes and 225 volts on 30 cycles. They have a 4.95 gear ratio. 

A trolley voltage of 700 was tried in 1909, but gave trouble in heavy 
service due to the impedance in the rail return. On 6600 volts and 30 
cycles, or on direct current, the operation is successful. 

SWEDISH STATE RAILWAY. 

Swedish State Railway has been conducting experiments near Stock- 
holm with locomotives and high potential contact lines, since July, 1905. 

Westinghouse 18,000-volt, 25-cycle, single-phase, 28-ton, 2-axle 
locomotive equipment, with 44-inch drivers, was first tested. It was 
designed to haul a 70-ton train at 40 m. p. h., and was equipped with 
two 150-h. p. geared motors. A second locomotive had 4 axles, four 
44-inch drivers, four 115-h.p., geared motors, and weighed 40 tons. 

Siemens-Schuckert furnished a 20,000-volt, 25-cycle, single-phase 
freight locomotive, shown in the accompanying illustration. The loco- 
motive has 3 driving axles each geared to a 115-h. p., compensated series 
motor. The locomotive weighs 40 tons and is designed for hauling freight 
trains at 28 miles per hour. The rated drawbar pull is 13,300 pounds, 
and on 1 per cent, grades the speed is 15 m. p. h. Drivers are 43-inch. 
Transformers are oil-cooled, 300-kw. units, and reduce the contact 
line voltage from 20,000 to from 160 to 320, in 10 sections. 



DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 383 




Fig. 149. — Swedish State Railway. Siemens Single-phase Locomotive op 1906. 




Fig. 150. — Swedish State Railway. Single-phase Locomotive and Train, 1906. 



384 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



In 1909; as a result of the experienced so gained by the Swedish 
State Railwa}^, the single-phase, 15-cycle, 15,000-volt system was formally 
adopted and an extensive program was started, embracing the use of 
water powers and heavy locomotives for mountain freight trains. 

Siemens-Schuckert Works will furnish thirteen 2000-h. p., 110-ton, 




Fig. 151. — Swedish State Railway. Cjiank and Side Rod Freight Locomotive. 
18,000-volt, 15-cycle, single-phase, 2000-h. p. unit. 

crank-type freight, also two 1000-h. p., 77-ton, crank-type passenger 
locomotives for use on the Kiruna-Riksgransen, 93-mile road on the 
Norwegian Frontier. The train loads of the ore trains will be doubled. 
Reference: E. R. J., May 6, 1911, p. 788. 




Fig. 152. 



-Swedish State Railway. Crank and Side Rod Passenger Locomotive. 
18,000-volt, 15-cycle, single-phase 1000-h. p. unit. 



FRENCH SOUTHERN RAILWAY. 



French Southern (or Midi) Railway, in 1911, placed in service one A. E.G. 
and six Westinghouse geared locomotives. These are 2-motor, 2-6-2 
class, crank and side-rod units, equipped with two 800-h. p. single- 
phase, 15-cycle motors, supplied from a 12,000-volt contact line. Freight 



DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 385 



and passenger trains are hauled on a 70-mile, double-track mountain 
road. 

Specifications required that, between speed limits of 18 and 33 m. p. h., 
when traveling on down-grades, current be returned to the line; also 




32000 40000 40000 40000 32000 

Fig. 153. — French Southern Railway Locomotive, 1910. 

Used between Pau and Montrejean. A. E. G. 94-ton, 1600-h. p., 1-phase, 15-cycle, 12,000-volt 

locomotive of the side-rod tj'pe. Forced ventilation. Freight and passenger service. 

that a 450-ton train be hauled up a 3.5 per cent, grade at 18 m. p. h. ; a 
310-ton train at 25 m. p. h.; and a 115-ton train at 38 m. p. h. On the 
level, express passenger trains were to run at 62 m. p. h,, and regular 
passenger trains at 40 m. p. h. 




3-11-^2-1^ 



Fig. 154.— Baden State-Weisental Railway Locomotive of 1910. 
Ten Siemens-Schuckert units used on the Basel-Zell Line. 71-ton, 1050-h. p., 300-volt motors. 

Westinghouse units weigh 89 tons, of whigh 62 tons are on drivers. 

A. E. G. units weigh 94 tons, of which 60 tons were on 49-inch drivers. 

The cranks work at an angle of 45 degrees with the horizontal, and 

the crank circle has a 21.66-inch diameter. E. R. J., June 3, 1911, p. 962. 

25 



386 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

GERMAN STATE RAILWAYS. 

Baden State Railway in 1909 obtained from Siemens-Schuckert ten 
locomotives for its Wiesental Railway between Basel, Schopfheim, and 
Zell, 34 miles of track. 

The system is the 15-cycle, 10,000-volt, single-phase. Locomotives 
have 3 sets of 47-inch drivers and 2 sets of leaders. Motors are two 
525-h. p., 300-volt, mounted upon the locomotive frame and crank-con- 
nected to jackshafts and to driver side rods. Weight is 71 tons. Eighty 
250- to 540-ton trains per day are hauled up grades of 0.57 per cent. 

Other locomotives of about the same capacity, weight, and type 
were purchased from Allgemeine Elect ricitats Gesellshaft. 

Reference. 

Electrician, July 2, 1909; Ry. Age Gazette, July, 1909; E. R. J., Dec. 11, 1909; 
Apr. 9, 1910, p. 668; Zeitschrift, Jan., 1909. 




Fig. 155. — Bavakian State Railway. Siemens Locomotive on Murnau-Oberammergau Line, 

1905. 

Bavarian State Railways in 1905 equipped the Murnau-Oberammer- 
gau line with two Siemens-Schuckert, 2-axle locomotives for freight 
service, each with 175-h. p. 15-cycle motors, with a gear ratio of 5. 
The trolley voltage is 5500. Many interesting details of the locomotive, 
contact line, and 2-axle freight cars are shown in the illustration. 

Prussian State Railway in 1906 ordered from the A. E. G. two 25- 
cycle, 6000-volt experimental locomotives. One had three 350-h. p., and 
one had two 300-h. p., single-phase motors. The first locomotive, in 
service at Oranienburg, is shown in Figure 196. It has geared motors, 
56-inch drivers, 10-foot 10-inch bogie truck wheel bases, a 31-foot total 
wheel base, and weighs 66 tons. 

For the Magdeburg-Leipzig Line, Brown-Boveri, Allgemeine, Oerlikon, 
and Siemens Companies have built locomotives of the 2-motor, crank type, 



DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 387 

and the Bergmami Company has built a l-motor, 1500-h. p. locomotive. 
These locomotives were designed for 75 m. p. h. in passenger service, and 
for 35 m. p. h. in freight service. 

The 10,000-volt, 15-cycle system has been adopted. 

Allgemeine has furnished an express locomotive of the Atlantic type and 4-4-2 
class. One 1000-h. p. motor, mounted in the center of the locomotive, utiHzes 
vertical driving rods from its crank shafts, and a crank circle of 23.6 inches. The 
crank shaft is side-rod connected to 2 pairs of 63-inch drivers. Rigid driver wheel 
base is 9 feet 10 inches, and total wheel base is 19 feet 8 inches. Weight is 77 
tons. See Figure 157. 




Fig. 156. — Prussian State Railway. A. E. G. Locomotive at Oranienburg, 1906. 

Allgemeine freight locomotive is of the 0-4-4-0 class, with one 800-h. p. motor, 
crank-connected at 45 degrees to a crankshaft located across the middle of the loco- 
motive. The crank circle diameter is 19.7 inches. The crank shaft is side-rod 
connected to 4 pairs of 41-inch drivers. Driver wheel base, not rigid, is 15 feet 
9 inches, and the total weight is about 64 tons. See Figure 158. 

References. 

Elec. Zeit., Aug. 4, 1910; E. W., April 9, 1910; E. R. J., June 6, 1908, p. 11. 



SWISS FEDERAL RAILWAY. 

Swiss Federal Railway has experimented extensively on the Seebach- 
Wettingen l^ranch, with Oerlikon and with Siemens locomotives. 

An Oerlikon locomotive, built in 1905, is a plain, single-phase, 15- 
cycle unit with 2 bogie trucks. It has two 200-kv. a., 15,000 to 600- 
volt transformers. Two 250-h. p., 650-r. p. m. forced draft motors, with 



388 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 




DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 389 




390 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 




Fig. 159. — Swiss Federal Railway. Siemens Locomotive, 1906. 




Fig. 160. — Swiss Federal Railway. Siemens Single-phase Freight Locomotive. 



DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 391 




Fig. 161. — Bernese Alps Railroad. A. E. G. Single-phase Locomotive, 1910. 
1600-h. p., 103-ton, crank and side-rod units. Crank rods from motors make an angle of only 

11 degrees from a vertical. 




Fig. 



162. — Bernese Alps Railroad. Oerlikon Single-phase Locomotive, 1910. 
2000-h. p., 97-ton, crank and side-rod units. 



392 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



a 3.08 gear ratio, are geared to a crankshaft located between each pair 
of 40-inch drivers, the crankshaft being coupled by side -rods to the 
drivers. Weight of electrical equipment is 18 tons and the total is 45 
tons. 

A motor-generator locomotive is described later in this chapter. 

A Siemens freight locomotive. Figures 159 and 160, is a 6-axle, 83-ton, 
single-phase, 15-cycle, 15,000-volt, 1350-h.p. unit. Each of six 225-h.p. 
motors is geared to its axle, a 3.75 gear ratio being used. E. W., Aug., 
1908, p. 290. 

BERNESE ALPS RAILROAD. 

Bernese Alps Railroad, in 1910, placed in service several locomotives 
on the 52-mile road between Bern, Lotschberg, and Simplon Tunnel. 
A. E. G. Locomotive. This unit is of the articulated 2-4-4-2 class. 
Specifications caUed for 28,600 pounds maximum tractive effort. 




Fig. 163. — Bernese Alps Railroad. Motor and Truck of Oerlikon Locomotive. 

and a 1-hour drawbar pull of 17,600 pounds, at 24.8 miles per hour, 
for a 2.7 per cent, grade and 280-ton train, or for a 1.55 per cent, grade 
and 442-ton train; and for maximum speeds of 47 m. p. h. 

The design embraces a unit built in two similar halves, with two 800-h.p. motors 
mounted upon the frames, which transmit their energy by crank and connecting 
rods, thru crankshaft. Each pair of driving axles is side-rod connected. Leading 
wheels are used on a pony truck and the leading axles are sliding axles. The driving 
axles can turn independent within narrow limits. The side rods have the usual 
knuckle joint. Springs are provided to keep the driving axle at right angles to the 



DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 393 

longitudinal axis of the locomotive, on tangents. Driver wheel diameter is 50 inches ; 
leading wheels, 33 inches; crank circle, 21 inches; wheel base, 40 feet 10 inches; 
wheel base of one-haK, 17 feet 4 inches; weight on driving axles, 19 tons; on leading 
axles, 14 tons; total weight 103 tons; weight of mechanical portion, 49 tons; weight 
of electrical equipment, 54 tons; weight of motors, 30 tons. 

Motors are two 8-pole 800-h.p., single-phase, 15-cycle units, fed from two 
15.000- to 400-volt transformers. E. R. J., April 9 and Oct. 29, 1910. See Fig. 33. 




Fig. 164. — Bernese Alps Railroad. Transformer on Oerlikon Locomotive. 



Oerlikon Locomotive. This unit is of the two truck 0-6-6-0 class. 

The two bogies each have three coupled axles. Weight is 97 tons, all on drivers; 
mechanical parts weigh 49 tons, and electrical parts 48 tons. Two 15,000- to 450- 
volt, 1000-kv.a. transformers weigh 12 tons. Length is 48 feet. Drivers are 53-inch. 
Motors and transformers are located over the two sets of end drivers of each truck; 
and the weight on the leading and trailing axles is 14.5 tons, while that on each of 
the four middle axles is 16.8 tons. Axle centers in feet and inches are 5-5, 6-0, 8-7, 
6-0, 7-5. 



394 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



Motors are two 12-pole, 1000-h.p., single-phase, 420- volt, 2100-ampere, 510-r.p.in., 
compensated series, 11-ton units. Frames are split horizontally. A 10-h.p. motor 
operates a forced draft fan for motors and transformers. Temperature rise is 60° C. 
for commutator and stator, and 75° for the rotor. Power factor for speeds above 
20 m.p.h. is 95 per cent. Air gap is 3 millimeters and thickness of babbit in 
bearings is 2 milh meters. 

Motor shafts are 73 inches above the rail. Efficiency is .90 at half and full 
load, and .95 at 19 m.p.h. Motors are rated 2000-h.p. Gear shafts are 10.4 inches 




Fig. 165. — Bernese Alps Railroad. Oerltkon Locomotive. Motor with Armature Removed. 



above the plane of the driver-axle centers. Each gear axle is crank connected to 
the further driver axle thru a 9-foot crank rod, which is forked at the driver end, 
and connects to a crank pin on the side rod. Side rods connect the three axles. 

Gear ratio is 3.25 and gear teeth are waved-shaped, consisting of a double angle 
with rounded tips, the sides being at an angle of about 45 degrees. Maximum pres- 
sure on teeth is 1850 pounds per square inch. Gear wheels are 57 inches in diameter. 
Motors run equally well on direct current at 400 volts and on one phase of a three- 
phase circuit. They are the largest motors yet built and have a remarkably high 
weight efficiency. 



DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 



395 



References: E. ^Y., Nov. 17, 1910, p. 1191; E. R. J., June 18, 1910; July 29, 1911. 

Performance tests show a maximum tractive effort of 33,000 pounds, and a normal 
tractive effort of 28,800 pounds at 26 m.p.h. or 2000 h.p. By utilizing a quickly made 
modification of the secondary transformer windings, to provide for a higher voltage 
3000 h.p. can be exerted for an hour at a speed of 37 m.p.h., and motors then have a 
2000-h.p. continuous rating. (Oerlikon Bulletin No. 63, August, 1910.) 




Fig. 166. — Bernese Alps Railroad. Armature and Pinion on Oerlikon Locomotive Motor. 

COMPARISON OF OERLIKON WITH OTHER LOCOMOTIVES. 



Name of railroad. 



Name 

of 
mfgr. 



Elec- 


One 


tric 


hour 


system. 


h.p. 


D.C. 


2200 


600-v. 




D.C. 


2500 


660-v. 




3-p. 


1980 


25-cy. 




3-p. 


1700 


15-cy. 




3-p. 


1700 


25-cy. 




1-p. 


1340 


-25-cy. 




1-p. 


1600 


15-cy. 




1-p. 


1600 


15-cy. 




1-p. 


2000 


15-cy. 





Contin- 
uous 
h.p. 



wt. 


1-hour 


Max. 


Wt. of 


in 


per ton. 


speed 


motors 


tons. 


h.p. 


m.p.h. 


tons. 


115 


19.1 


60 


25 


157 


15.9 


66 


48 


67 


29.5 


28 


27 


76 


22.4 


43 


27.5 


115 


14.8 


15 


30 


130 


10.3 


50 


38 


89 


18.0 


46 


30 


103 


15.5 


46 


30 


97 


20.6 


44 


21 



Wt. of 
transf., 
tons. 



New York Central .... G .E 

Pennsylvania West. . . . 

Giovi West. . . . 

Simplon Tunnel Brown . . 

Great Northern G.E 

Boston & Maine West. . . . 

French Southern West. . . . 

Bernese Alps \ A.E.G . . . 

Bernese Alps Oerlikon. 



1000 
1600 
1440 

1500 
1180 
1200 

2000 



12 



Continuous h.p. rating of alternating-current motors is on forced draft. 
Maximum speed must be considered in comparing* the locomotive tonnage. 



396 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

ST. POLTEN-MARIAZELL RAILWAY. 

St. Polten-Mariazell Railway in lower Austria, a 30-inch gage road, 67 
miles long, in 1910 changed from steam locomotives which had a maxi- 
mum speed of 18.6 m.p.h. to single-phase, electric locomotives with a 
maximum speed of 30 m.p.h. Siemens-Schuckert Works has furnished 
17 locomotives. Two units are used with multiple-unit control for all 
heavy trains. Each unit has two 6-wheel, swivel trucks. 

Motors are two per locomotive, 250-h.p., 250-volt, series type with 
forced ventilation, mounted above the truck frame between the mid- 
dle and inside driving axle. Motors have a 2.9 gear ratio and are geared 
to crankshafts, each of which is outside connected to 3 pairs of drivers 
by side rods. The rigid wheel base of each truck is 7 feet 10 inches, 
and, as is usual in European practice, the forward driving wheels 
are connected to the middle wheels by a side rod thru a knuckle joint. 
The total wheel base is 25 feet 10 inches. 

Weights are: total, 99,500 pounds; mechanical 46,500 pounds; 
motors and gears, 26,500 pounds; two 6000- to 250-volt transformers, 
15,500 pounds; control apparatus, 8800; current collectors, 2200 pounds; 
each motor, 4400 pounds. Elec. Ry. Journ., August 20, 1910. 



LEONARD-OERLIKON. 

Motor-generator locomotives usually embrace: 

High-pressure single-phase distribution. Single-phase, direct-current, 
self-starting, continuous-running motor-generator; driving direct-current 
motors connected to axles. Regeneration of energy by field control of 
the direct-current generator. 

Advantageous features of the motor-generator plan: 

Sixty-cycle current may be used if necessary. Wasteful resistance 
losses are avoided in acceleration. Smooth acceleration is obtained for 
freight-train haulage. Opening of all heavy current circuits is avoided. 
Variations in speed may be produced by variation in the shunt fields of 
the direct-current generators. Multiple-unit control is simplified. 
Regeneration of energy is facilitated. 

A motor-generator locomotive was built in 1905 by the Oerlikon 
Company for the Seebach-Wettingen Railway of Switzerland. The line 
voltage, 15,000, was reduced by two 15-cycle, 200-kw. transformers to 
750 volts. The motor-generator set was rated 520 h. p., and consisted 
of a squirrel-cage, single-phase motor connected to a 600-volt direct- 



DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 397 

current generator, rated 400 kw, at 980 r. p. m. There were four 100-h. p., 
600-volt, direct-current traction motors, with a 3.50 gear ratio, connected 
in pairs to coupled drivers. Drawbar pull was 9000 pounds, and the run- 
ning speed was 44 m. p. h. Weights are given below: 

Mechanical parts 22 . 2 tons 42 . 6 per cent. 

Transformers 3 . tons 5 . 8 per cent. 

Motor-generator 11.0 tons 21.2 per cent. 

Axle motors 15.8 tons 30.4 per cent. 

The total weight was 52 tons, which is only 7.7,h. p. per ton. 



References on Leonard -Oerlikon Locomotives. 

Leonard, A. I. E. E., June, 1892; E. W., March 5, 1904; July 8, 1905, p. 50. 
Oerlikon, S. R. J., April 8, 1905, p. 650; Nov. 11, 1905, p. 888; S. R. J., Feb. 24, 1906; 
E. W., Aug. 8, 1908. 

PARIS-LYONS-MEDITERRANEAN. 

Paris -Lyons -Mediterranean Railway built an experimental locomo- 
tive in 1909 which embodied a modified electric system. 

A single-phase, alternating-current, 12,000-volt, 25-cycle contact 
line delivers power to a locomotive, on which a permutator converts the 
alternating current to direct current at an e. m. f. adjustable between 
zero volts and 600 volts. The energy is delivered to 4 ordinary direct- 
current, 450-volt motors geared to the 4 driving axles of the locomotive. 

The regulating permutator which is used consists of a synchronously 
revolving commutator which makes one revolution per cycle. The 
function of the permutator is to reverse the current every half cycle or 
to send the successive half waves of alternating current in the same 
direction to a receiving, direct-current circuit. The permutator which 
has a normal power factor of 98 per cent, is rated 2200 kw. ; it weighs 
20 tons. 

The locomotive weighs 140 tons, is 65 feet long, and has 8 axles 
of which the 4 central ones are the driving axles. The drawbar pull 
exerted is 16,400 pounds at 37 miles per hour and 10,600 pounds at 62 
miles per hour. This locomotive and system are used on the Grasse- 
Cannes-Mouans-Sortoux line with steep grades and sharp curves. 

Reference. 

London Electrician, October 22, 1909; March 17, 1911; S. R. J., Dec. 1, 1906. 



398 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



REFERENCES TO DETAILED DRAWINGS OF SINGLE-PHASE 
LOCOMOTIVES. 



Name of locomotive. 


Maker. 


Location. 


References. 


New Haven 1906 pass 

1909 geared. . 

1910 crank. . . 

1911 switch. . 
Boston & Maine geared . . 


West 

West 

West 

West 

West 

West 

West 

G.E 


New York Div. . . 
New York Div. . . 
New York Div. . . 
Harlem Yards. . . 
Hoosac Tunnel 


E.R.J., Aug. 17, 1907; Nov. 21, 1908. 
E.R.J., Sept. 25, 1909; May 7, 1910. 
E.R.J., May 17, 1910, p. 830. 
E.R.J., April 15, 1911, p. 667. 


Grand Trunk geared .... 


St. Clair . 




Windsor, Essex & L.S . . 
General Electric freight . . 


Windsor Ont. . . . 

Proposed 

Proposed 

Oranieaburg 

Magdeburg 

France 

Basel-Zell 

Loetschberg 

Loetschberg 

Austria 


E.R.J. , July 25, 1908, p. 340. 
A.I.E.E., July, 1910, p. 1788. 
E.R.J. , May 8, 1909, p. 874. 
Zeitschrift, 1908, p. 17. 
E.R.J. , Dec. 25, 1909, p. 1259. 
E.R.J., April 9, 1910. 
Zeitschrift, Jan., 1909, p. 998. 
E.R.J., April 9, 1910. 
E.R.J., April 9, Oct. 29, 1910. 
E.R.J., June 18, 1910. 
E.R.J., Aug. 20, 1910, p. 301. 


Prussian State 


A.E.G 


French Southern 

Baden State, Wiesental.. 
Bernese- Alps.. . . . 


A.E.G 

Siemens . . . 

A.E.G 

Oerlikon. . . 
Siemens . . . 


Bernese-Alps 

St. Polten-Mariazell 



DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 399 



This page is reserved for additional references and notes on single-phase 
locomotives. 



CHAPTER XI. 
POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS. 

Outline. 

Power Units and Formulas. 
Power for Trains a Function of : 

Weight of cars; speed of train; tractive coefficient, character of tractive effort; 

tractive resistance, gravity, friction, inertia; acceleration, deceleration. 
Elementary Kinematics of Acceleration. 
Energy for Frequent Stops. 
Power for Auxiliaries : 

Light, ventilation, brakes, electric heating. 
Losses at Motors : 

Mechanical, magnetic, electric, control, contact. 
Losses Beyond Motors : 

Transformation, conversion, transmission. 
Power Curves : 

Speed, tractive effort, time. 
Watt-hours per Ton -mile. 
Regeneration of Energy : 

Mechanical and electrical schemes. 
Summary on Power Required. 
Literature. 



400 



CHAPTER XI. 

POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS. 
IN GENERAL. 

The tractive effort required to overcome train resistance will first be 
studied; after which the tractive effort to overcome inertia will be con- 
sidered with the subject of acceleration; then motor losses, braking^ and 
regeneration will be taken up ; and finally summaries will be made on the 
energy and power required for train movements. 

POWER UNITS AND FORMULAS. 

Energy and power units, used in a study of the starting, moving, and 
stopping of trains, will first be reviewed. 

Energy is defined as the ability to perform work; and work is the prod- 
uct of the force and the distance thru which the force acts. Work is 
measured in results; and is expressed quantitatively, in foot-pounds or in 
kilowatt-hours. 

The unit of energy, in electric traction, is expressed in watt-hours 
per ton-mile. 

Force refers to pull, or pressure. Force is expressed in gravity units, 
that is, in pounds. The force, R, acting on a train, overcomes gravity, 
frictional resistance, and inertia. 

Speed or velocity is expressed in feet per second, v, or, preferably, in 
miles per hour, m. p. h. 

Power is the rate at which work is performed. The mechanical unit is 
the horse power, 550 foot-pounds per second. 

RXv RXVX5280 R X m. p. h. 

Horse power = = = ^ 

^ 550 550X3600 375. 

The electrical unit of power is the kilowatt. 1.34 h. p. =1.00 kw. 

The word power is frequently used in place of the word energy. 

Energy of position or potential energy is illustrated. 

A 1000-ton train at the summit of a grade, which is 4000 feet high, 
has the ability to perform work in descending a grade, and may even 
generate energy and deliver it to an electric transmission line and central 
power station. The amount of energy which, on account of the position 
of the train, may be generated in descending is 

4000X1000X2000 or 8,000,000,000 foot-pounds. If the train runs 
down or up the grade in 2 hours or 7200 seconds, at the rate of 15 m. p. h., 
the power, or rate of work, excluding the friction averages 

8,000,000,000/ 550/ 7200 or 2000 h. p. 
26 401 



402 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

The force required in braking the train, if the distance is about 30 
miles, or 160,000 feet, averages 

8,000,000,000/160,000 = 50,000 pounds. 
As a check— h. p. -RXm. p. h./375 = 50,000 X15/375-2000. 

Energy of motion of a moving train is, by kinematics, the product of 
one-half the mass and the square of the velocity. Mass equals weight in 
pounds divided by 32, the force of gravity. The kinetic energy of motion 
= (1/2)MW2, or M//64, in foot-pounds. Example: 

An 870-ton, 25-car train running at 34 m. p. h. (about 50 feet per 
second) has stored up as kinetic energy 

870X2000X50X50/64 or 68,000,000 foot-pounds. 

If the train is to be stopped within 2000 feet, a retarding force of 
34,000 pounds is required, or 39 pounds per ton. 

Frictional resistance would be about 7.5 pounds per ton, or 6500 
pounds in this example, so that the net retarding force would be 27,500 
pounds, or 1100 pounds per car, or 137 pounds per wheel. If the average 
coefficient of friction is 0.17, the pressure per wheel would be 810 pounds. 
Master Car Builders' Association rules limit the maximum braking force 
on the 8 wheels of freight cars to 70 to 90 per cent, of the light weight, 
to avoid sliding of wheels; or, in the example, about 27,500 pounds. 

POWER FOR TRAINS. 

The power used for electric trains is a function of: 
The weight of the cars hauled. 
The speed of the train. 
The available tractive coefficient. 
The character of the tractive effort. 

The tractive resistance or effort per ton, for gravity, friction, and 
acceleration. 



POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS 403 

WEIGHT OF CARS, FREIGHT AND PASSENGER, ON RAILROADS. 



!Name of cars. 




Type 
or kind. 



Dead weight 
in tons. 



Capacity 
in tons. 



Box 

Box 

Box 

Box 

Box 

Box 

Box 

Box (C. P. R. 
Furniture. . . . 

Stock 

Oil 

Flat 

Flat 

Flat... 

Flat 

Coal 

Coal 

Coal 

Gondola 

Gondola 

Ore 



R.). 



28 to 30 

32 to 34 

40 

40 



Ore 

Ballast I 

Average, Ry. Age, 1911, p. 935. 

Coaches, 8-wheel 45 to 60 

Coaches, 12-wheel 50 to 60 

Coaches, 12-wheel 60 to 70 

Mail car 50 to 70 

Mail car { 60 to 70 

Baggage car, 8-wheel 50 to 60 

Baggage car, 12-wheel 66 

Dining car 50 to 60 

Tourist cars 

Sleeping cars 50 to 60 

Sleeping cars 60 to 70 



Sleepers, Pennsylvania 

Six-wheel truck only 

Buffet Library cars 

Pennsylvania R. R., 18-hour, . 
New York-Chicago, six cars 



60 to 70 



72 



Wood 
Wood 
Wood 
Wood 
Wood 
Wood 
Wood 
Steel 
Wood 
Wood 
Steel 
Wood 
Wood 
Wood 
Steel 
Wood 
Steel 
Steel 
Wood 
Steel 
Wood 
Steel 
Wood 



Wood 
Wood 
Steel 
Wood 
Steel 
Wood 
Steel 
Wood 
Wood 
Wood 
Steel 
Steel 
Steel 
Steel 

Steel 



40 
50 
60 



to 12 

to 14 

to 17 

to 18 

to 23 

to 21 

to 22 

to 20 

to 19 

to 15 

to 18 

to 11 

to 12 

to 13 

to 23 

to 19 

to 18 

to 22 

to 14 

20 

to 13 

to 20 

12 

19 

to 32 

35 

to 70 

25 

to 45 

30 

72 

40 

40 

to 60 

to 65 

to 75 

10 

76 

350 



20 to 30 

25 to 30 

30 

40 

50 

40 

50 

40 

30 to 40 

25 

30 to 45 

20 

30 

40 

50 

40 to 50 

40 

50 to 55 

30 to 40 

50 

40 to 50 

40 to 70 

30 to 40 

35 



American Railway Association's standard freight car has inside di- 
mensions, 30 feet long by 8.5 feet wide by 8 feet high. 

European freight cars have four wheels and weigh half as much. 



404 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

WEIGHT OF MOTOR PASSENGER CARS ON ELECTRIC ROADS. 



Name of cars. 



Length 
in feet. 



Type 
or kind. 



Weight 
in tons. 



No. of 

seats. 



Pounds 
per seat. 



City 

Interurban 

Interurban 

Interurban 

Interurban 

Interurban 

Interurban 

Interurban coach 

Rapid Transit 

Rapid Transit 

Elevated 

Elevated 

Tunnel 

Hudson and Manhattan . . 

New Haven, motor 

New Haven, coaches ..'... 

Long Island 

Pennsylvania-Long Island. 
West Jersey & Seashore . . 

New York Central 

Southern Pacific suburban. 

Midland Ry., England 

London, Brighton & S. C. . 



26 to 32 
40 
45 
50 
55 
60 
60 
60 
50 
50 
45 
45 
50 
48 
70 



51 
65 
55 
55 
60 
72 
60 
60 



Wood 

Wood 

Wood 

Wood 

Wood 

Wood 

Steel 

Wood 

Wood 

Steel 

Steel 

Wood 

Steel 

Steel 

Steel 

Steel 

Steel 

Steel 

Wood 

Steel 

Steel 

Steel 

Wood 

Steel 



8 to 12 
20 
26 
30 
36 
39 
50 

30 to 45 
23 to 45 
35 to 50 

32 
28 

31 to 38 

35 
87 
50 
38 to 41 
53 
47 
52 
54 
55 
45 
57 



28 to 34 

40 

45 

50 

55 

62 

64 

70 

55 

55 

48 

48 
46 to 56 

44 

76 

76 

52 

72 

58 

58 

68 
116 

72 

66 



650 
1000 
1155 
1200 
1310 
1260 
1560 
1070 
1235 
1545 
1335 
1165 
1350 
1600 
2290 
1315 
1520 
1485 
1620 
1790 
1590 

950 
1250 
1730 



See complete tabular data on weights of American and European 
motor cars and coaches, near the end of Chapter VI. 

In general, the weight of electric cars is 1400 pounds per seat when 
arranged for over 60 passengers, and 1000 pounds per seat for 100 or 
more suburban passengers; an average is about 1200 pounds. For a 
given number of seats, the weight per seat varies directly with the 
schedule speed. 

Suburban cars, with some side seats, turtle-back roofs, without 
monitor decks, are not comparable with cars for railroad service. 

Steam railroad coaches weigh from 1700 to 2000 pounds per seat. 

References on Weight of Cars. 

Curves showing car weights, E. R. J., Sept. 19, 1908; also October 10, 1908, p. 912. 
Standardization suggested, dimensions and drawings, S. R. J., Oct. 15, 1908, p. 1104. 
Heron: Relation of Car Length, Weight, Truck Centers, S. R. J., Feb. 8, 1908. 
Ayers: Weight and Operating Cost, Amer. Elec. Ry. Assoc, Oct., 1909; E. R. J. 
Oct. 7, 1909. 



POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS 
SCHEDULE SPEED OF RAILWAY TRAINS. 



405 



Name of railway. 



M. p. h. 



Thru trains, in rolling country 

Local passenger trains 

Mountain freight trains 

Way freight trains 

Time freight trains 

Quick dispatch and refrigerator special 

Stock trains, on prairie divisions 

Fast mail trains, without passengers 

New York Central, 18-hour train, New York-Chicago . . . . 
Pennsylvania R. R., 18-hour train, New York-Chicago . . . . 
Ordinary 24-hour train between New York and Chicago 

Chicago-Minneapolis passenger trains, 408/13 

MinneapoUs-Seattle passenger trains, 1814/56 

Chicago- Omaha passenger trains, 492/14.6 

Chicago-San Francisco passenger trains, 2279/76 

New York Subway, local and express 

Manhattan Elevated 

Ordinary street railway. 



35 to 40 

22 to 28 

5 to 9 

8 to 12 

13 to 18 
16 to 18 
18 to 22 
40 to 50 

53.5 
50.6 
40.0 
32.0 
32.4 
33.7 
30.0 
14 and 30 

14 to 15 

10 



SCHEDULE SPEED OF TRAINS INCREASED WITH ELECTRIC TRACTION. 



Schedule speed. 



Name of railway. 




Per cent, 
increase. 



Brooklyn Rapid Transit 

Manhattan Elevated R. R 

Grand Trunk Ry., Port Huron. 
Metropolitan Elevated, Chicago, 
South Side Elevated, Chicago. . . 
Lake Street Elevated, Chicago. , 
Great Northern Cascade Tunnel 
Mersey Ry., England 

North-Eastern Ry., England . . 

Berlin Inner Circle 

Milan- Varese R. R 



37 
36 
66 
25 
15 
20 
30 
27 
20 
40 
40 
50 
50 



Number of cars per train was increased 50 to 75 per cent, on the 
Manhattan; and the number of cars per train on most of the roads listed 
was increased. 



406 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

TRACTIVE COEFFICIENT. 

The tractive coefficient, or coefficient of adhesion, is the ratio between 
the maximum tractive effort and the weight on drivers. It depends 
largely upon the condition of the rails, and partly on the composition 
of the steel in contact. 

Coefficients of Friction Between Drivers and Rail : 

Most favorable condition 35%, when sanded 40% 

Clean dry rail 28%, when sanded 30% 

Thoroly wet rail 18%? when sanded 24% 

Greasy moist rail 15%, when sanded 25% 

Sleet-covered rail 15%, when sanded 20% 

Dry-snow-covered rail 11%? when sanded 15% 

Character of tractive effort is involved in tractive coefficient. 

Steam locomotives deliver a tractive effort which varies from 28 to 
50 per cent, above and below the mean, during each revolution of the 
driver. The ratio of the maximum available tractive effort to adhesive 
weight on drivers is 25 per cent. This is based on a study made by the 
Master Mechanics' Association Committee of 1898. Mr. L. H. Fry, in a 
paper before New York Railroad Club, Sept., 1903, showed as the result 
of tests on 155 locomotives that the ratio averaged 22 per cent. 

Mallet compound steam locomotives lack uniformity of tractive 
effort from the pistons, during each revolution of the drivers. The two 
pistons on each side produce efforts on the drivers of independent trucks, 
which efforts may be exerted in any relation or position from zero to 
90 degrees apart. 

Electric locomotives deliver a uniform tractive effort during the 
revolution of the drivers. With smooth application of the power by the 
controller, the tractive effort is from 25 to 35 per cent, of the weight on 
drivers. However, 22 per cent, is to be recommended as a basis in railway 
service; for, even tho high ratios are available with favorable conditions at 
the rail, they could not be used with bad weather conditions which fre- 
quently govern train service. 

Electric locomotives sometimes lack uniformity of tractive effort 
during train acceleration. This is caused by the opening of the circuits 
in some types of series-parallel, or concatenated controllers; or change 
in the number of poles, or crude schemes which require that power be 
shut off to change the motor combinations. The cutting in and out 
of large blocks of resistance causes jerking of the train, but this can be 
obviated by connecting more taps to the resistances or transformer. 
Water rheostats which make gradual changes in the resistance, a scheme 
used on Field's locomotives in 1883, are used on some European work. 

Motor-car trains, even in bad weather and without the use of sand 
under the wheels, have ample and uniform tractive effort. The acceler- 
ation rate may be high because so much of the weight is on the drivers. 



POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS 407 

Tractive effort to overcome train resistance and inertia is thus 
limited by the coefficient of adhesion or condition of the rail, the uni- 
formity of tractive effort, and the amount and distribution of weight. 
The method of suspension of the motors on the truck also affects the 
maximum tractive effort. See Eaton: Electric Journal, Dec, 1910. 

TRACTIVE RESISTANCE. 

Tractive resistance to motion is caused by gravity, friction of the 
train, including bearings, rails, curves, air resistance, and inertia. 

GRADES. 

Grades increase the tractive effort required per ton. Each 1 per 
cent, grade increases the pull or lift 1 per cent, of 2000 pounds, or 20 
pounds per ton, and this is to be added to the frictional resistance and 
to the accelerating resistance per ton. 

FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE. 

Resistance measurements with dynamometer cars are faulty because 
they do not include the head-end resistance of the locomotive or of the 
leading motor car. Results from electric meters include head-end 
friction, mechanical friction, and electric motor losses. Results derived 
from indicator cards of steam locomotives are also correct. 

Train friction equations are of the form R = A + BV + CV^, wherein 
R is the total resistance to motion, in pounds per ton; V the velocity of 
the train, plus or minus the velocity of the wind, in m. p. h. 

A stands for journal friction, which increases slightly with the speed 
and varies inversely as the square root of the pressure on the journals. 
Friction per ton is much greater with empty than with loaded cars; it 
varies greatly with the quantity and quality of the lubricant, and 
with the temperature. It includes friction of motor bearings, brushes 
on commutators, friction of machinery, trucks, spring oscillation, etc. 

B stands for rail friction, which varies with the diameter of the wheels, 
length of wheel base, cleanliness, dryness and stiffness of rails, the track 
soldity or inelasticity, and the flange friction between wheels and rails 
caused by concussions and by side winds. Oscillations, concussions, and 
waves in rails occur on poor track and cause extra resistance to motion. 

C stands for wind or air resistance, and varies with the shape or 
contour of the front and rear vestibules, sides, surfaces, cross-section of 
the locomotive and cars, and the number of cars, N, in the train. 

The numerical values of the constants. A, B, and C, in pounds are: 

^=3.0 for 70-ton freight cars; 6.0 for empty freight cars; 4.0 for 
passenger coaches and light loaded freight cars; 4.0 for 45-ton, 4.5 for 
35-ton, and 5 to 6 for 25- to 15-ton passenger or freight cars. 

B = 0. 06 for excellent track; . 1 1 for heavy track; . 10 up to . 15 for 
ordinary good track. Data on freight cars indicate that B= .05. 



408 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



C is a variable quantity which depends on the shape of the front of 
the train, K, and the effective cross-sectional area of the train in square 
feet, divided by the total weight of the train. C = Kx Area /Tons. 
The values of K, in pounds per square foot, are: 

.0010 for parabolic fronts; .0040 for flat fronts; .0020 for wedged fronts; 
.0028 for vestibule cars; .0030 for open platforms; .0033 for freight cars; 
and higher values for open-end coaches and small electric cars. 

Cross-sectional areas are about 85 square feet for a street car; 100 
for an interurban car; 120 for a locomotive or a coach; 120 to 140 for a 
freight car. To the above, 10 per cent, of the cross-sectional area is added 
for each trailing car. 



FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE OF TRAINS IN GENERAL. 



R 



R = 



= A 


+ 


BV 


+ 


K X 


Area x y 


3.0 




f .05 




r .0020 


[ 85 


3.5 




.10 




.0028 


100 


4.0 


+ < 


.llxV 


+ 


. 0030 X = 


110x(l-h.lO(N-l))x-^ 


5.0 




.12 




.0033 


120 


6.0 




[ .15 




. .0040 


L 140 



TRACTIVE RESISTANCE FORMULAS FOR TRAINS. 



Authority. 



Value of R — Tractive resistance. 



Notes on service. 



, 166V j Steam trains. 

250V General use. 

,150V+(.02 N-25)VVT... j Long trains. 

200V+ .48VVT Elevated railways 

120 V + (. 0014 +.35/T)Vi« ! Motor-car trains. 

160V+ .333VVT I General use. 

,130V+(.0040AVVT) (l+.l (N-1)) .. Electric trains. 

167V + .0025AVVT Suburban service. 

150V +(.020 N + 0.25)VVT Motor-car trains. 

I 
.030V+(.0020AVVT) (1 + . l(N-l)).. . ' Short trains. 



Baldwin 3.0 + 

Eng. News 2.0 + 

Dudley |-3.5 + 

Lundie 14.0 + 

Blood '5.0 + 

Sprague 4.0 + 

Davis, W.J...! 4.0 + 
Smith, W. N. .! 4.0 + 
Mailloux 3.5 + 

5.0 

Armstrone; .... ^ + 

. V T 



Value of R for Freight Trains, Exclusive of Locomotive. 



Dennis j 2.41 T+ 90 N 

Onderonk I 2.78 T + 114 N 



Cole . . 
Amer. 



Ry. Eng. Association. 



1.07 T+138N. 
2.22 T + 122 N. 



Average of tests, 1904. 
Baltimore & Ohio test, 1904. 
Penn. R. R. tests, 1907. 
Recommendation, 1910. 
N = no. of cars per train. 



POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS 409 

The last four formulas assume that, between 5 and 30 m.p.h., the 
friction is independent of the velocity. It is well to point out that there 
is nothing in data of tests to support this assumption. Conclusive 
tests show an increase of 50 per cent, between 5 and 30 m.p.h. 

Value of R for Steam Locomotives recommended by the American 
Railway Engineering Association for the friction between the cylinder 
and the rim of the drivers is R = 18.7 T + 80X, where T = tons on drivers, 
and X = number of driving axles. 

American Locomotive Company's tests show that the mechanical 
friction resistance of the engine without tender is equal to the weight on 
drivers in tons x 22 . 2 pounds. 

Values of Air Resistance Constant, C, in pounds, as detailed by Goss : 

C=.2A0V' for locomotive = .002F2xA, where A = 120 square feet. 

C= .llOF^ for locomotive and tender. 

C= .026F^ for last car of a freight train. 

C= .036F^ for last car of passenger train. 

C= .OlOy^ for each intermediate freight car. 

C= .0201"^ for each intermediate passenger car. 

FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE TABLES. 

The application of train friction constants to motor-car trains is 
show^n in the following Tables on Tractive Resistance. They have been 
checked repeatedly for ordinary conditions, on a private right-of-way. 
The variable which requires the most consideration is B. 

TRACTIVE RESISTANCE— SINGLE-CAR OPERATION. 

15-ton car R = 6.0+ . 11V+ .SOxV^ (1+0.1 (N-l)/T) 

10 m. p. h., R-6.0 + 1.1 + .30X 100/15 = 6.0 + 1.1+ 2.0= 9.1 
20 6. + 2. 2+.30X 400/15 = 6.0 + 2.2+ 8.0 = 16.2 

30 6. + 3. S+.SOx 900/15 = 6.0 + 3.3 + 18.0 = 27.3 

40 6.0 + 4.4+ .30x1600/15 = 6.0 + 4.4 + 32.0 = 42.4 

50 6. + 5. 5 +.30x2500/15 = 6. + 5. 5 + 50. = 61. 5 

60 6.0 + 6.6+ .30x3600/15 = 6.0 + 6.6 + 72.0 = 84.6 

20-ton car R = 5. 5+ . 12V+ .30xV2 (1+0.1 (N-l))/T 

10m. p. h., R = 5. 5 + 1. 2+.30x 100/20 = 5.5 + 1.2+ 1.5= 8.2 
20 5. 5 + 2. 4+.30X 400/20 = 5.5 + 2.4+ 6.0 = 13.9 

30 5.5 + 3.6+.30X 900/20 = 5.5 + 3.6 + 13.5 = 22.6 

40 5.5 + 4.8+ .30x1600/20 = 5.5 + 4.8 + 24.0 = 34.3 

50 5.5 + 6.0+ .30x2500/20 = 5.5 + 6.0 + 37.5 = 49.0 

60 ■ 5. 5 + 7.2+. 30x3600/20 = 5. 5 + 7. 2 + 54. = 66. 7 

25-ton car R = 5.0+ . 13V+ .30xV2 (1+0.1 (N-l))/T. 

10 m. p. h., R = 5. + 1. 3+.30x 100/25 = 5.0 + 1.3+ 1.2= 7.5 
20 5. + 2. 6+.30X 400/25 = 5.0 + 2.6+ 4.8 = 12.4 

30 5.0 + 3.9+.30X 900/25 = 5.0 + 3.9 + 10.8 = 19.7 

40 5.0 + 5.2+ .30x1600/25 = 5.0 + 5.2 + 19.2=29.4 

50 5. + 6. 5+. 30x2500/25 = 5. + 6. 5 + 30. = 41. 5 



410 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

35-ton car R = 4.5+ . 13V+ .SOxV^ (1+0.1 (N-l))/T 

10 m. p. h., R = 4. 5 + 1. B+.BOx 100/35=4.5 + 1.3+ 0.9= 6.7 
20 . 4. 5 + 2. 6+.30X 400/35 = 4.5 + 2.6+ 3.4 = 10.5 

30 4. 5 + 3. 9+.30X 900/35 = 4.5 + 3.9+ 7.7 = 16.1 

40 4. 5 + 5. 2 +.30x1600/35 = 4. 5 + 5. 2 + 13. 7 = 23. 4 

50 4. 5 + 6.5+. 30x2500/35=4. 5 + 6. 5 + 21. 4 = 32. 4 

45-ton car R = 4.0+ . 13V+ .33xV2 (1+0.1 (N-l))/T 

10 m. p. h., R = 4. + 1. 3+.33X 100/45 = 4.0 + 1.3+ 0.7= 6.0 
20 4. + 2. 6+.33X 400/45=4.0 + 2.6+ 3.0= 9.6 

30 4. + 3. 9+.33X 900/45=4.0 + 3.9+ 6.6 = 14.5 

40 4.0 + 5.2+ .33x1600/45=4.0 + 5.2 + 12.0 = 21.2 

50 4. + 6. 5+. 33x2500/45=4. + 6. 5 + 18. 3 = 28. 8 

TRACTIVE RESISTANCE— 2-CAR TRAIN. 

15-ton cars R = 6.0+ . 11V+ .BOxV^ (1+0.1 (N-l))/T 

10 m. p. h., R = 6.0 + 1. 1 + .30x 100x1.1/30 = 6.0 + 1.1+ 1.1= 8.2 
20 6. + 2. 2+.30X 400x1.1/30 = 6.0 + 2.2+ 4.4 = 12.6 

30 6. + 3. 3+.30X 900x1.1/30 = 6.0 + 3.3+ 9.9 = 19.2 

40 6. + 4. 4+. 30x1600x1. 1/30 = 6. 0+4. 4 + 17. 6 = 28.0 

50 6 . + 5 . 5 + . 30x2500x1 . 1/30 = 6. + 5. 5 + 27. 5 = 39. 

60 6. + 6. 6+. 30x3600x1. 1/30 = 6. + 6. 6 + 39. 6 = 52. 2 

20-ton cars R = 5.5+ . 12V+ .BOxV^xl . 1/T 

10m. p. h., R = 5.5 + 1.2+.30x 100x1.1/40 = 5.5 + 1.2+ 0.8= 7.5 
20 5. 5 + 2. 4+.30X 400x1.1/40 = 5.5 + 2.4+ 3.3 = 11.2 

30 5. 5 + 3. 6+.30X 900x1.1/40 = 5.5 + 3.6+ 7.4 = 16.5 

40 5. 5 + 4.8+. 30x1600x1. 1/40 = 5. 5+4. 8 + 13. 2 = 23. 5 

50 5. 5 + 6. 0+. 30x2500x1. 1/40 = 5. 5 + 6. + 20. 6 = 32.1 

60 5. 5 + 7. 2 +.30x3600x1. 1/40 = 5. 5 + 7. 2 + 29. 7 =42. 4 

25-ton cars R = 5.0+ . 13V+ .BOxV^xl . 1/T 

10 m. p. h., R = 5. + 1. 3+.30X 100x1.1/50 = 5.0 + 1.3+ 0.7= 7.0 
20 5. + 2. 6+.30X. 400x1. 1/50 = 5. + 2. 6+ 2.6 = 10.2 

30 5. + 3. 9+.30X 900x1.1/50 = 5.0 + 3.9+ 5.9 = 14.8 

40 5. + 5. 2 +.30x1600x1. 1/50 = 5. + 5. 2 + 10. 6 =20. 8 

50 5 . + 6 . 5 + . 30x2500x1 . 1/50 = 5. + 6. 5 + 16. 5 = 28. 

60 5. + 7. 8+. 30x3600x1. 1/50 = 5. + 7. 8 + 23. 7 = 36. 5 

:4.5+.13V+.30xV2xl.l/T 

4.5 + 1.3+.30X 100x1.1/70=4.5 + 1.3+ 0.5= 6.3 
4.5 + 2.6+ .30x 400x1.1/70=4.5 + 2.6+ 1.9= 9.0 
4.5 + 3.9+.30X 900x1.1/70=4.5 + 3.9+ 4.2 = 12.6 
4.5 + 5.2+. 30x1600x1 .1/70 =4. 5 + 5. 2+ 7.5 = 17.2 
4. 5 + 6. 5 +.30x2500x1. 1/70 = 4. 5 + 6. 5 + 11. 8 = 22. 8 
4.5 + 7.8+. 30x3600x1 .1/70 = 4.5 + 7.8 + 17.0 = 29.3 

:4.0+.13V+.33xV2xl.l/T 
10 m. p. h., R = 4.0 + 1.3+ .33x 100x1.1/90=4.0 + 1.3+ 0.4= 5.7 
20 4. + 2. 6+.33X 400x1.1/90=4.0 + 2.6+ 1.6= 8.2 

30 4. + 3. 9+.33X 900x1.1/90 = 4.0 + 3.9+ 3.6 = 11.5 

40 4. + 5. 2+. 33x1600x1. 1/90=4. + 5. 2+ 6.4 = 15.6 

50 4. + 6. 5+. 33x2500x1. 1/90 = 4. + 6. 5 + 10. = 20. 5 

60 4. + 7. 8 +.33x3600x1. 1/90 = 4. + 7. 8 4 14.5 = 26.3 



35-ton cars . 


R 




10 m. p. h., R 




20 




30 




40 




50 




60 


45-ton cars . 


R 



POWER REQUIRED' FOR TRAINS 411 

TRACTIVE RESISTANCE— 3-CAR TRAIN. 

15-tou car R = 6.0+ . 11V+ .SOxV^ (1+0.1 (N-l))/T 

lOm. p.. h., R = 6. + 1. 1+.30X 100x1.2/45 = 6.0 + 1.1+ .8= 7.9 
20 6. + 2. 2+.30X 400x1.2/45 = 6.0 + 2.2+ 3.2 = 11.4 

30 6. + 3. 3+.30X 900x1.2/45 = 6.0 + 3.3+ 7.2 = 16.5 

40 6. + 4. 4+. 30x1600x1. 2/45 = 6. + 4. 4 + 12, 8 = 23. 2 

50 6. + 5. 5+. 30x2500x1. 2/45 = 6. + 5. 5 + 20. = 31. 5 

60 6 . + 6 . 6 + . 30x3600x1 .2/45 = 6.0 + 6.6 + 28.8 = 41.4 

20-ton car R = 5.5+ . 12V+ .30xV2xl .2/T 

10 m. p. h., R = 5. 5 + 1. 2+.30X 100x1.2/60 = 5.5 + 1.2+ .6= 7.3 
20 5. 5 + 2. 4+.30X 400x1.2/60 = 5.5 + 2.4+ 2.4 = 10.3 

30 5. 5 + 3. 6+.30X 900x1.2/60 = 5.5 + 3.6+ 5.4 = 14.5 

40 5. 5 + 4.8+. 30x1600x1. 2/60 = 5. 5 + 4. 8+ 9.6 = 19.9 

50 5. 5 + 6. 0+. 30x2500x1. 2/60 = 5. 5 + 6. + 15. = 26. 5 

60 5. 5 + 7.2+. 30x3600x1. 2/60 = 5. 5 + 7. 2 + 21. 6 = 34. 3 

25-ton car R = 5.0+ . 13V+ .SOxV^xl .2/T 

10 m. p. h., R = 5. + 1. 3+.30X 100x1.2/75 = 5.0 + 1.3+ .5= 6.8 
20 5. + 2. 6+.30x 400x1.2/75 = 5.0 + 2.6+ 1.9= 9.5 

30 5. + 3. 9+.30X 900x1.2/75 = 5.0 + 3.9+ 4.3 = 13.2 

40 5. + 5. 2+. 30x1600x1. 2/75 = 5. + 5. 2+ 7.7 = 17.9 

50 5. + 6. 5 +.30x2500x1. 2/75 = 5. + 6. 5 + 12. 2 =23. 7 

60 5. + 7. 8 +.30x3600x1. 2/75 = 5. + 7. 8 + 17. 3 = 30.1 

30-ton car R = 4.5+ . 13V+ .30xV2xl .2/T 

10 m. p. h., R = 4. 5 + 1. 3+.30X 100x1:2/90 = 4.5 + 1.3= .4= 6.2 
20 4. 5 + 2. 6+.30X 400x1.2/90 = 4.5 + 2.6+ 1.6= 8.7 

30 4. 5 + 3. 9+.30X 900x1.2/90 = 4.5 + 3.9+ 3.6 = 12.0 

40 4. 5 + 5.2+. 30x1600x1. 2/90=4. 5 + 5. 2+ 6.4 = 16.1 

50 4. 5 + 6. 5 +.30x2500x1. 2/90 =4. 5 + 6. 5 + 10. = 21.0 

60 4.5 + 7.8+. 30x3600x1 . 2/90 = 4 . 5 + 7 . 8 + 14 . 4 = 26 . 7 

35-ton car R = 4.5+ . 13V+ .30xlV2x.2/T 

10 m. p. h., R =4. 5 + 1.3 +.30x 100x1.2/105 = 4.5 + 1.3+ .3= 6.1 

20 4. 5 + 2. 6+.30X 400x1.2/105=4.5 + 2.6+ 1.4= 8.5 

30 4. 5 + 3. 9+.30X 900x1.2/105 = 4.5 + 3.9+ 3.0 = 11.4 

40 4. 5 + 5.2+. 30x1600x1. 2/105 = 4. 5 + 5. 2+ 5.5 = 15.2 

50 4. 5 + 6.5+. 30x2500x1. 2/105 = 4. 5 + 6. 5+ 8.6 = 19.6 

60 4.5 + 7.8+. 30x3600x1 . 2/ 105 =4 . 5 + 7 . 8 + 12 . 3 = 24 . 6 

45-ton car R=4.0+ . 13V+ .33xV2xl.2/T 

10m. p. h., R = 4. + 1. 3+.33X 100x1.2/135=4.0 + 1.3+ .3= 5.6 
20 4. + 2. 6+.33X 400x1.2/135=4.0 + 2.6+ 1.2= 7.8 

30 4. + 3. 9+.33X 900x1.2/135=4.0 + 3.9+ 2.6 = 10.5 

40 4. + 5. 2+. 33x1600x1. 2/135 = 4. + 5. 2+ 4.7 = 13.9 

50 4. + 6. 5+. 33x2500x1. 2/135 = 4. + 6. 5+ 7.3 = 17.8 

60 4 . + 7 . 8 + . 33x3600x1 . 2/ 135 = 4 . + 7 . 8 + 10 . 6 = 22 . 4 



412 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

TRACTIVE RESISTANCE— 4-CAR TRAIN. 

25-ton cars R = 5.0+ . 13V+ .30V^ (1+0.1 (N-l))/T 

10 m. p. h., R = 5. + 1. 3+.30X 100x1. 3/100 = 5. + 1. 3+ 0.4= 6.7 

20 5. + 2. 6+.30X 400x1.3/100 = 5.0 + 2.6+ 1.6= 9.2 

30 5. + 3. 9+.30X 900x1.3/100 = 5.0 + 3.9+ 3.5 = 12.4 

40 5. + 5. 2+. 30x1600x1. 3/100 = 5. + 5. 2+ 6.2 = 16.4 

[50 5. + 6. 5+. 30x2500x1. 3/100 = 5. + 6. 5+ 9.8 = 21.3 
60 5. + 7. 8+. 30x3600x1. 3/100 = 5. + 7. 8 + 14. = 26. 8 

30-ton cars R = 4. 5+ . 13V+ .30xV2xl .3/120 

10 m. p. h., 4. 5 + 1. 3+.30X 100x1.3/120 = 4.5 + 1.3+ 0.3= 6.1 

20 4. 5 + 2. 6+.30X 400x1.3/120=4.5 + 2.6+ 1.3= 8.4 

30 4. 5 + 3. 9+.30X 900x1.3/120 = 4.5 + 3.9+ 2.9 = 11.3 

40 4. 5 + 5.2+. 30x1600x1. 3/120 = 4. 5 + 5. 2+ 5.2 = 14.9 

50 4. 5 + 6.5+. 30x2500x1. 3/120 = 4. 5 + 6. 5+ 8.1 = 19.1 
60 4. 5 + 7.8+. 30x3600x1. 3/120 = 4. 5 + 7. 8 + 11. 7=24.0 

35-ton cars R = 4.5+ . 13V+ .30xV2xl.3/140 

10m. p. h., 4. 5 + 1. 3+.30X 100x1.3/140=4.5 + 1.3+ 0.3= 6.1 

20 4. 5 + 2. 6+.30X 400x1.3/140 = 4.5 + 2.6+ 1.1= 8.2 

30 4. 5 + 3. 9+.30X 900x1.3/140 = 4.5 + 3.9+ 2.5 = 10.9 

40 4. 5 + 5.2+. 30x1600x1. 3/140=4. 5 + 5. 2+ 4.4 = 14.1 

50 4. 5 + 6.5+. 30x2500x1. 3/140=4. 5 + 6. 5+ 7.0 = 18.0 
60 4. 5 + 7.8+. 30x3600x1. 3/140=4. 5 + 7. 8 + 10. = 22. 3 

45-ton cars R = 4.0+.13 V+ .33xV2xl .3/180 

10m. p. h., 4. + 1. 3+.33X 100x1.3/180 = 4.0 + 1.3+ 0.2= 5.5 

20 4. + 2. 6+.33X 400x1.3/180 = 4.0 + 2.6+ 1.0= 7.6 

30 4. + 3. 9+.33X 900x1.3/180 = 4.0 + 3.9+ 2.1 = 10.0 

40 4. + 5. 2+. 33x1600x1. 3/180 = 4. + 5. 2+ 3.8 = 13.0 

50 4. + 6. 5+. 33x2500x1. 3/180 = 4. + 6. 5+ 6.0 = 16.5 

60 4. + 7. 8+. 33x3600x1. 3/180 = 4. + 7. 8+ 8.6 = 20.4 



TRACTIVE RESISTANCE— 6-CAR TRAIN. 

25-ton cars R = 5.0+ . 13V+ .30xV2 (1+0.10 (N-l))l/T 

10m. p. h., R = 5.0 + 1.3+.30x 100x1.5/150 = 5.0 + 1.3+ 0.3= 6.6 
20 5. + 2. 6+.30X 400x1.5/150 = 5.0 + 2.6+ 1.2= 8.8 

30 5. + 3. 9+.30X 900x1.5/150 = 5.0 + 3.9+ 2.7 = 11.6 

40 5. + 5. 2+. 30x1600x1. 5/150 = 5. + 5. 2+ 4.8 = 15.0 

50 5. + 6. 5+. 30x2500x1. 5/150 = 5. + 6. 5+ 7.5 = 19.0 

60 5.0 + 7.8+ .30x3600x1.5/150 = 5.0 + 7.8 + 10.8 = 23.6 

35-ton cars R = 4.5+ . 13V+ .30xV2xl.5/T 

10 m. p. h., R = 4. 5 + 1. 3+.30X 100x1.5/210 = 4.5 + 1.3+ 0.2= 6.0 
20 4. 5 + 2. 6+.30X 400x1.5/210 = 4.5 + 2.6+ 0.9= 8.0 

30 4. 5 + 3. 9+.30X 900x1.5/210^ 

40 4. 5 + 5. 2 +.30x1600x1. 5/210^ 

50 4. 5 + 6. 5 +.30x2500x1. 5/210: 

60 4. 5 + 7. 8 +.30x3600x1. 5/210: 



4 


.5 + 3 


.9 + 


1 


.9 = 


= 10, 


,3 


4 


.5 + 5 


.2 + 


3 


.4 = 


= 13, 


,1 


4 


.5 + 6., 


.5 + 


5 


.4 = 


= 16, 


,4 


4 


.5 + 7.8 + 


7, 


.7 = 


= 20, 


,0 



POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS 



45-ton cars R 

10 m. p. h., R 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 



= 4.0+. 13 V + .33xV2xl.5/T 

= 4.0 + 1.3+.33x 100x1.5/270=4.0 + 1.3+ .2 

4.0 + 2.6+.33X 400x1.5/270 = 4.0 + 2.6+ .7 

4.0 + 3.9+.33X 900x1.5/270=4.0 + 3.9+ 1.6 

4. + 5. 2 +.33x1600x1. 5/270 =4. + 5. 2+ 2.9 

4. + 6. 5 +.33x2500x1. 5/270 = 4. + 6. 5+ 4.6 

4 . + 7 . 8 + . 33x3600x1 . 5/270 = 4 . + 7 . 8 + 6.6 



TRACTIVE RESISTANCE— 8-CAR PASSENGER 
35-ton car R = 4. 5+ . 13V+ .30xV2 (1+0.1 (N- 



10 m. 

20 

30 

40 

50 



p. h., R 



= 4.5 + 1.3+.30x 100x1.7/280=4. 

4.5 + 2.6+.30X 400x1.7/280 = 4. 

4.5 + 3.9+.30X 900x1.7/280 = 4. 

4.5 + 5.2+. 30x1600x1 . 7/280 =4 . 

4.5 + 6.5+. 30x2500x1 . 7/280 = 4 . 

45-ton car R = 4.0+ . 13V+ .33xV2 (1. +0.1 (N 

10 m. p. h., R = 4.0 + 1.3+.33x 100x1.7/360 = 4. 
20 4. + 2. 6+.33X 400x1.7/360 = 4. 

30 4.0 + 3.9+.33X 900x1.7/360 = 4. 

40 4. + 5. 2 +.33x1600x1. 7/360 = 4. 

50 4. + 6. 5+. 33x2500x1. 7/360 = 4. 



TRAIN. 

1))/T 
5 + 1.3 + 
5 + 2.6+ . 
5 + 3.9 + 1 
5 + 5.2 + 2, 
5 + 6.5+4 
-1))/T 
+ 1.3 + 
+ 2.6+ , 
+ 3.9 + 1 
+ 5.2 + 2, 
+ 6.5 + 3. 



17 
71 = 
63: 

89: 
53 

15 

62: 
36: 

47: 

89 = 



TRACTIVE RESISTANCE— 12-CAR PASSENGER TRAIN. 

45-ton car R = 4.0+ . 13V+ .33xV2 (1-hO.l (N-l))/T 

10m. p. h., R = 4.0 + 1.3+.33x 100x2.1/540=4.0 + 1.3+ .12 
20 4. + 2. 6+.33X 400x2.1/540=4.0 + 2.6+ .43 

30 4.0 + 3.9+.33X 900x2.1/540 = 4.0 + 3.9 + 1.15 

40 4. + 5. 2+. 33x1 600x2 . 1 / 540 = 4 . + 5 . 2 + 2 . 03 

50 4 . + 6 . 5 + . 33x2500x2 .1/540 = 4. + 6. 5 + 3. 19 

60 4. + 7. 8+. 33x3600x2. 1/540 = 4. + 7. 8 + 4. 62 



413 



5.5 

7.3 

9.5 

12.1 

15.1 

18.4 



= 6.0 
7.8 
10.0 
12.5 
15.5 

5.4 

7.2 

9.2 

11.7 

14.4 



5.4 

7.0 

9.0 

11.2 

13.7 

16.4 



50 



40 



30 



10 













/ 












4" 


















/ 






/ 




^ ^ 








y 


^ 






vts 


^^ 


^^^ 











50 



40 



30 



10 



10 20 30 40 50 

Miles per Hour 

Fig. 167. — Tractive Reslstance Curves. 
One to ten electric motor-car passenger trains. 



GO 



414 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



60 



50 



d40 

o 



20 



10 











§1 














ly/ 


^/ 


/ 








/ 


i 




/ 






A 


/ 


4 




a 






/ 


/> 


^8 


1 


^ 


^^ 











60 



50 



40 



30 



20 



10 



10 



20 



50 



60 



30 40 

Miles per Hour 

Fig. 168. — Tractive Resistance Curves. 
One to eight electric motor-car passenger trains, also 20 to 50-car electric locomotive hauled freight 

trains. 



New York Central trains on the ''Twentieth Century Limited" with 
63-ton Pullman coaches and Pacific type steam locomotives (see page 66) 
show that the tractive resistance on level tangents is as follows: 



Speed, 
m. p. h. 


Cars in 
train. 


Wt. of 
cars, tons. 


Wt. of 
loco., tons. 


Friction per 
ton, cars. 


Friction per 
ton, loco. 


Friction per 
ton, total. 


70 
62 
60 


5 

8 


315 
505 
564 


200 
200 
200 


11.5 

9.8 
9.5 


22.7 
20.3 
19.7 


15.9 
12.9 
12.2 



TRACTIVE RESISTANCE OF FREIGHT CARS IN TRAINS. 

10 cars. 300-tonload. R = 5.0+ .06V+ .33xV2 (1 +0. 1 (N-l))/T 

10 m. p. h., R-5.0 + 0.6+.33X 100x1.9/300 = 5.0 + 0.6 + 0.2= 5.8 
20 5. + 1. 2+.33X 400x1.9/300 = 5.0 + 1.2 + 0.8= 7.0 

30 5. + 1. 8+.33X 900x1.9/300 = 5.0 + 1.8 + 1.9= 8.7 

40 5 . + 2 . 4 + . 33x1 600x1 .9/300 = 5. + 2. 4 + 3. 3 = 10. 7 



20 cars. 600-ton load. R = 5.0+ .06V+ .33xV2 (1 +0. 1 (N-l))/T 

• 10 m. p. h., R = 5. + 0. 6+.33X 100x2.9/600 = 5.0 + 0.6 + 0.1= 5.7 

20 5. + 1. 2+.33X 400x2.9/600 = 5.0 + 1.2 + 0.6= 6.8 

30 5. + 1. 8+.33X 900x2.9/600 = 5.0 + 1.8 + 1.4= 8.2 

40 5. + 2. 4+. 33x1600x2. 9/600 = 5. + 2. 4 + 2. 5= 9.9 



POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS 415 

30 cars. 1200-ton load. R=4.0+ .06V+ .SSxV^ (1 +0. 1 (N-l))/T 

= 4.0 + 0.6+.33x 100x3.9/1200=4.0 + 0.6 + 0.1= 4.7 

4.0 + 1.2+.33X 400x3.9/1200 = 4.0 + 1.2 + 0.4= 5.6 

4.0 + 1.8+.33X 900x3.9/1200 = 4.0 + 1.8 + 0.9= 6.7 

4 . + 2 . 4 + . 33x1600x3 . 9/ 1200 = 4 . + 2.4 + 1.7= 8.1 



1200-ton load. 


R 


10 m. p. h.^ 


, R 


20 




30 




40 




2000-ton load. 


R 


10 m. p. h., 


R 


20 




30 




40 





50 cars. 2000-ton load. R = 4 .0+ .06V+ .33xV2 (1 +0. 1 (N-l))/T 

:4.0 + 0.6+.33x 100x5.9/2000 = 4.0 + 0.6 + 0.1= 4.7 

4.0 + 1.2+.33X 400x5.9/2000=4.0 + 1.2 + 0.4= 5.6 

4.0 + 1.8+.33X 900x5.9/2000 = 4.0 + 1.8 + 0.9= 6.7 

4 . + 2 . 4 + . 33x1600x5 . 9/2000 =4.0 + 2.4 + 1.6= 8.0 

40 cars. 2000-ton load. R = 3. 5+ .06V + .33xVMl +0. 1(N-1))/T 

10m. p. h., R = 3.5 + 0.6+.33x 100x4.9/2000 = 3.5 + 0.6 + 0.1= 4.2 

20 3. 5 + 1. 2+.33X 400x4.9/2000 = 3.5 + 1.2 + 0.3= 5.0 

30 3. 5 + 1. 8+.33X 900x4.9/2000 = 3.5 + 1.8 + 0.7= 6.0 

40 3. 5 + 2.4+. 33x1600x4. 9/2000 = 3. 5 + 2. 4 + 1. 3= 7.2 

Tractive resistance in pounds for the electric or steam locomotive is 
to be added, viz.: 22.2 X tons on drivers for locomotive friction; and 
0.24 V^ for locomotive head air resistance. Count the tender, if a steam 
locomotive is used, as one car. 

See data from N. Y. N. H. & H. electric locomotive tests, page 429. 

Winter weather will often cause an increase of 60 per cent., over the 
resistance given above, which is for ordinary summer weather on ordi- 
nary good track. 

CURVES. 

Curve resistance has been found to vary from . 56 to . 70, but to 
average . 60 pounds, per ton per degree of curvature. Steam railroads 
use the rule, . 7 pounds per ton for the train and 1 . 6 pounds per ton 
for the engine, per degree of curvature. The number of degrees equals 
5730 divided by the radius of the curve in feet. 

Reverse curves are frequent in rough country. Where grades are 
equated for curvature, it is sufficient to use the resistance due to the 
grade. When the train is of great length engines are sometimes stalled 
on level track by the reverse curves alone. 

INERTIA. 

Inertia requires the application of force to produce motion, and 
generally the force required is many times greater than that to simply 
overcome friction. The tractive effort required to overcome inertia 
depends upon the rate of change of speed, or the acceleration, which is 
to be produced. 

The unit of acceleration is the change in speed per mile per hour per 
second. One m. p. h. p. s. = 1 .466 feet per second per second. 



416 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



ACCELERATION RATES COMMONLY USED FOR TRAINS. 

Steam locomotive, long and way freight 1 to .2 

Steam locomotive, common passenger trains 2 to .5 

Steam locomotive, transcontinental passenger trains 1 to .3 

Electric locomotives, common freight service 1 to .3 

Electric locomotives, thru passenger trains 2 to .6 

Electric locomotives, local passenger trains 4 to .6 

Electric motor cars, interurban service 8 to 1 . 3 

Electric motor cars, city cars 1 . 3 to 1 . 6 

Electric motor cars, rapid transit trains 'l . 3 to 1 . 8 

Electric motor cars, highest rates 2 . to 2 . 5 

Maximum rate used, coefficient of friction x 32.2 6 . to 8 . 



ACCELERATING RATES OF ELECTRIC RAILWAY TRAINS. 



Name of electric railroad 



Tons 

per 

traia. 




H.p. 

per 

train. 



H.p. 
per 
ton. 



Boston Elevated 

Boston & Worcester 

New York, New Haven & Hartford: 

Freight locomotive 

Freight locomotive 

Passenger locomotive 

Passenger locomotive 

Passenger locomotive 

Motor car 

New York Central: 

Passenger locomotive 

Passenger locomotive 

Passenger locomotive 

Passenger locomotiv 

Passenger locomotive 

Motor cars 

Brooklyn Rapid Transit 

Manhattan Elevated 

Interboro Subway, 1908 

Interboro Subway, 1911 

Long Island-Pennsylvania 

Long Island-Brooklyn 

West Shore R. R 

Erie R.R., motor car 

Metropolitan Elevated, Chicago 
South Side Elevated, Chicago 
Northwestern Elevated, Chicago 

Central London 

Great Western 

North-Eastem, England 
London, Brighton & S. C 

Liverpool & Southport 

Midland Ry., England 

(Dalziel & Sayer's data) 

Giovi Ry., Italy; 2.7% grade 

Great Northern, Cascade T.; 1.7% grade 



2100 
200 

1260 

1260 

960 

960 

960 

1200 

2200 
2200 
2200 
2200 
2200 
2000 
1600 
1000 
2400 
3260 
2580 
1600 
600 
800 



540 

1280 

500 

640 

3000 

820 

1200 

1200 

1200 

360 

300 

300 

1980 

1700 



10.00 
8.00 

0.91 
1.34 
2.35 
2.67 
3.11 
3.70 

3.14 
4.00 
5.82 
7.90 
11.34 
4.06 
9.00 
6.50 
6.67 
9.33 
8.04 
7.21 
7.50 
5.2 



3.7 
3.3 

11.1 
6.4 
6.4 

10.9 
6.7 
8.0 
7.3 
7.0 
4.4 
2.3 



POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS 



417 



The acceleration rate is governed by the h. p. capacity per ton, as 
well as by the speed-time service requirements. Tons of 2000 pounds. 

ACCELERATION RATES OF ENGLISH RAILWAYS. 



Name of electric railway. 


Specific 
acceleration 
m. p. h. p. s. 


Distance 
between 
stops, ft. 


Time 

of 
stop. 


Schedule 

speed 
m. p. h. 


Running 

speed 
m. p. h. 


Liverpool Overhead 

Liverpool & Southport 

London Electric 

Central London .... 


1.79 
1.25 
1.06 
0.90 
0.71 
0.35 
1.00 


2145 
6535 
2555 
2540 
6000 
23500 
4300 


11 
15 
20 
20 
30 
120 
20 


19.5 
30.0 
15.7 
14.7 
20.5 
26.7 
22.0 


22.9 
33.4 
19.2 
17 7 


North-Eastern 


24.1 


Midland-Morcambe 

London, Brighton & S. C . 


33.4 



DECELERATION RATES. 

Braking commonly used for electric trains 1.6 to 2 . 00 

Westinghouse magnetic brakes, Electric Railway Test Com- 
mission 2.57 

Maximums, Electric Railway Test Commission 4 . 00 to 5 . 00 

Boston and Worcester interurban 2.1 to 2 . 77 

Brooklyn Rapid Transit (Elevated Division) 1 . 50 

Manhattan Elevated R. R • 1.75 to 1.85 

Ordinary steam railroad passenger train 1 . 25 to 1 . 60 

Ordinary steam railroad freight train 70 to .80 

KINEMATICS OF ACCELERATION. 

Elementary kinematics governing acceleration: 
Pull, or pressure, or force =F, in pounds. 

Mass = M = weight /32. 2 

Distance or space =s, in feet. 

Time =t, in seconds. 

Energy = FXs, in foot-pounds. Power = F Xs/550, in h. p. 
F = rate of acceleration X mass. 

F = aX weight in pounds/32.2 in feet per second per pound. 
F = a X5280/3600 X W X 2000/32.2, in miles per hour per second per ton. 
F=aX91.1 X No. of tons, in miles per hour per second per ton. 
F = aXlOOX tons, allowing 10 per cent, for energy of rotation. 

This means that in order to accelerate a train at the rate of 1 mile per 
hour per second, a force of 100 pounds per ton is required. 
Velocity in feet per second v = s/t 

and V = rate of acceleration X time. 

Energy of rotation = (1/2) M Xv^ = F Xs. 
27 



418 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

F = (l/2)W/32.2XvVs, in feet per second per second. 

F = 69V^/s, where V is in miles per hour per ton, and s is the distance in 

feet within which acceleration or deceleration takes place. 

F = 76V^/s, allowing about 10 per cent. (6 to 16) for energy of rotation.^ 

This means that an accelerating or decelerating force must he 76 pounds 
per ton, times the square of the velocity in miles per hour, divided by the 
distance in feet. 
■ Distance in feet, s= velocity X time; and v = (ave.)aXt. 

Distance in feet is s = (l/2)a Xt^, in feet per second and seconds. 

Example. — A 1200-ton freight train is started by employing an ac- 
celerating force of 18,000 pounds, or 15 pounds per ton, in addition to 
the force required to overcome friction. 

The rate of acceleration is then 0. 15 m. p. h. p. s.; for to accelerate a 
train at the rate of 1 m. p. h. p. s. requires 100 pounds per ton. 

The speed in m. p. h. is a Xt, The speed, at the end of a uniform 
acceleration period, for example 84 seconds, is 0. 15 X84 or 12. 6 m. p. h. 

One m.p.h.p.s. equals 1.466 feet per second. Distance run is 
(1/2) Xaxt2 = (l/2)x0. 15x1.466x842-775 feet. 

A 300-ton passenger train is started by using an acceleration force of 
12,000 pounds, which is 40 pounds per ton; or the rate of acceleration 
used is 0.4 m.p.h.p.s. The speed in m. p. h. at the end of 60 seconds is 
0.4 X 60, or 24 m. p. h.; and the distance run is (1/2) X0.4X1 .466 X60^ 
or 1056 feet. 

The same 300-ton passenger train in common rapid transit service 
would be accelerated at four times the above rate, or at 1 . 6 m. p. h. p. s. 
If maintained 30 seconds, the speed would be 1.6X30, or 48 m. p. h. 
The distance covered in 30 seconds is (1 / 2) X 1 . 60 X 1 . 466 X 30^, or 1056 ft. 

ENERGY FOR FREQUENT STOPS. 

When the service requires frequent stops, the subject of energy and 
power becomes an important matter. 

The kinetic energy in foot-pounds which is required to start or stop a 
train is (l/2)Mv2, where M is the mass (pounds divided by 32.2) and 
V is the speed in feet per second. 

Example. — A 55-ton car running at 60 m.p.h. The kinetic energy is 
(l/2)X55X2000/32.2X(1.466X60)^ or 13,000,000 foot-pounds; or 
13,000,000/ (550X60X60) =6. 50 h.p. for 1 hour. Assuming that the 
efficiency of the motor and of the control plan during the time when the 
train is accelerating from zero to full speed is 55 per cent., then the 
kw.-hr. to the motors are 746X6. 5/. 55, or 8.8, which might amount 
to 10 kw.-hr. at the electric power station. The train can attain full 
speed in about 1 minute and thus the average power expended for 

^ Storer: Inertia of Rotating Parts of a Train, A. I. E. E., Jan., 1902. 



POAVER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS 



419 



acceleration alone, during each start, is 10 kw.-hr. divided by 1/60 
hour, or 600 kilowatts. The cost of energy at the rate of 2 cents per 
kw.-hr. is 20 cents, a relatively large sum to be paid per car per stop. 

The example is a fair one and shows up the mechanical and the 
financial side of train service which requires frequent stops per mile. 
Frequent-stop, high-speed service is expensive. 

The energy required for common interurban train service varies 
widely. For example, it was found that the average energy delivered 
from the central station to supply the motors on a 28-ton electric car 
which made long runs with very few stops between two cities was 2 . 30 
kw.-hr. per car-mile, while the average energy with 10 stops per mile for 
service within the city limits was 4.75 kw.-hr. per car-mile. 

Efficiency of motors during the accelerating period is low, from 50 
to 70 per cent. These losses are not of relative importance when the 
number of stops does not exceed one per mile. 

Operating expenses are increased by stops. For example the total 
operating cost as determined for a common railroad is 55 cents per 
average passenger train-mile, and the cost of each extra stop is 80 cents. 

Frequent stop service thus increases the amount of energy, total cost 
of energy, running time, and cost of truck, car, and motor maintenance. 

The energy required for the propulsion of rapid transit trains having 
a fixed schedule speed is least when the trains are started and stopped 
at the maximum rate of acceleration and deceleration. It is necessary, 
therefore, that trains which are to make numerous stops per mile be 
properly equipped. High rates of acceleration require that the motive 
power be placed at intervals thruout the train; it must not be concen- 
trated on a few drivers, or on one or more locomotives. 

Tables have been distributed by manufacturers of electric railway 
motors showing the average kilowatt input to trains of varying weight 
and composition, schedule speed, maximum speed, and stops per mile, 
with different motor gear ratios. These tables facilitate determinations 
of motor capacities. Such a table is given below. 



AVERAGE KILOWATT INPUT WITH VARYING STOPS PER MILE. 

Single-car Operation. 



Stops per mile. 


1/8 


1/4 


1/2 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


20-ton car 






51 

69 


36 
51 


29 
40 


26 
36 


24 
33 


23 
32 


22 
31 


22 


30-ton car 




96 


31 


40-ton car 


176 


119 


85 


63 


51 


45 


43 


41 


40 


40 


50-ton car 


195 


130 


94 


73 


61 


55 


52 


50 


49 


49 


60-ton car 


200 


140 


106 


82 


70 


64 


62 


60 


59 


58 



420 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Two-car Trains. 



2-20-ton cars 






78 
104 
124 
147 
165 


60 

80 

103 

125 

144 


50 

69 

89 

111 

127 


45 

64 

82 

103 

117 


43 
62 
79 
99 
115 


41 
60 
77 
97 
113 


40 
59 
76 
95 
111 


40 


2-30-ton 




137 
160 
183 
202 


58 


2-40-ton 


228 
255 

282 


75 


2-50-ton 

2-60-ton 


94 
110 


Three-car Trains. 


3-20-ton cars 






102 
135 
164 
198 
219 


76 
112 
140 
172 
191 


67 

97 

127 

155 

175 


63 

90 

117 

145 

167 


61 

88 

115 

142 

163 


60 

86 

113 

139 

160 


59 

84 
111 
137 
158 


58 


3-30-ton 




173 

200 
236 
263 


83 


3-40-ton 

3-50-ton 

3-60-ton 


280 
300 
342 


110 
136 
157 


Five-car Trains. 


5— 20-ton cars 






144 
196 
246 
302 
352 


124 
171 
216 
270 
314 


110 
154 
197 

250 
290 


102 
145 

188 
236 
280 


98 
142 
183 
228 
275 


97 
139 
180 
225 
271 


95 
137 

178 
222 
266 


94 


5-30-ton 




238 
292 
350 
400 


136 


5-40-ton 


370 

438 
497 


176 


5-50-ton 


220 


5-60-ton 


263 



POWER FOR AUXILIARIES. 

Lighting and ventilation of cars generally require 1 kilowatt per 
passenger car. Swiss Federal Railway allows 2 candle power per seat. 
Shops and passenger stations require 1 kilowatt per 100 square feet. 

Brakes are seldom electrically operated. 

Signals require about 1 per cent, of the total power used for trains. 

Heating by electricity is decidedly expensive compared with heat- 
ing by coal. Electric heat is used for rapid transit service to obtain 
cleanliness, space, and minimum care; or when the cost of electric power 
is low. Electric heating during 3 months of the year in the northern 
states requires about 400 watts per ton, or 12 kilowatts for a 30-ton 
car. West Jersey & Seashore Railroad uses 63 watt-hours per ton-mile, 
measured at substations, for summer service, and 100 for winter service, 
the difference being used largely for heating the cars in winter. Swiss 
Federal Railway allows 156 watts as a n-aximum per seat. 

LOSSES AT MOTORS. 

To the mechanical power required, the losses at motors, the friction, 
magnetic, commutator, contact, control and heating losses, are added. 
Motor and gear friction on motor cars is equivalent to about 50 
pounds tractive effort per motor. 



POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS 



421 



LOSSES BEYOND MOTORS. 

These are the losses in transmission and contact lines, transformers, 
and substations where used. 

Efficiency of transmission, from the power station output to the 
rotary converter substation output, is 70 to 85 per cent., varying in- 
versely with the output. Third-rail and track-return losses reduce the 




Fig. 169. — Typical Curve on Relation of Speed to Time. 
Great Northern Railway eight-car passenger train number 1, The Oriental Limited. Curve by 

Schalter speed recorder. 

above efficiency 5 to 20 per cent., depending upon the distance and loads, 
making the total efficiency 50 to 65 per cent. When high-voltage con- 
tact lines are used, and substations are omitted, the efficiency varies 
from 65 to 85 per cent. 



1000 50 



800 40 



•a coo ^30 

400 30 



200 10 



«< 



3^0 TYPICAL CURVES SHOWING RHEOSTAT LOSSES 

S«^ I 6 CAR TRAIN 4 MOTOR GARS-1 45 TONS 

~±p AVG. BRAKING RATE 1.75 MILES PER HR.PER SEC 

PZA STATION STOP 14-SEC. 




10 20 30 40 50 60 70 

Seconds 
Fig. 170. — Power, Speed, and Time Curves Obtained by Putnam on the Manhattan Elevated 

Railway. 



POWER CURVES. 



To illustrate the change of speed or tractive effort with reference 
to time or to distance, power curves are used. See Fig. 169. Illustrative 
curves, in simplest form, from Putnam's paper on ''Power Economy on 
Manhattan Elevated Railroad," to A. I. E. E., July, 1910, are also shown. 



422 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



WATT-HOURS PER TON-MILE. 

The energy which is required for trains is generally expressed in 
watt-hours per ton-naile. The energy required is proportional to, and 
dependent on, the tractive effort required per ton to overcome friction, 
inertia, and grades. The energy required per ton-mile does not depend 
on the speed. It is not a function of the speed but of the resistance. 
High speed, however, increases the friction or tractive effort. 

The average numerical value of the tractive resistance, or the values 
of the train resistance for different speeds and combinations of cars in 
the train, were given in the tables on tractive resistance. The tables 
are for trains on a level tangent at uniform motion. The added re- 
sistance for the grades, track curves, and rate of acceleration, is readily 



1600 



1300 



800 



400 





1 
i 






































TYPE OF TRAIN-. 6 CARS (4 MO-QR CARS & 2 TRAILER CARS) 

MOTORS PER TRAIN = 8(2 MOTORS PER MOTOR CAR) 

WEIGHT OF TRAIN LOADED = 308,000 LB. =154 TONS 

TOTAL WEIGHT ON DRIVERS = 137,000 u =68.8 TONS = 44. 6 % 

TRACTIVE COEFFICIENT =15% 

RATE OF ACCELERATION = 1. 33 MILES PER HR.PER SEC. . 

RATE OF BRAKING = 2 MILES PER HR. PER SEC. 
TRAIN RESISTANCE =13 LB. PER TON OF TRAIN WEIGHT 
TRACK ASSUMED LEVEL - 1775 l-btl LONG 
E. M. F. OF UNE = 550 VOLTS 




p. 












40 






















30 






\ 
























RESULTS 








\ 










,.,- 


— ■ 


'" 


V Ru 


nRf^ 


^av) 




RUN 


RUN 




V 1 


SCHEDUIEM.P.H. 


14.7 


15.41 










V 


^ 


•^ 











'^^ Run A 


FOR RUN 


177.1 


262.5 


30 


.W.-H.™ 


4.05 


5.7i 






/ 


^ X 


^ 












^ 


n\ 




-i:^^ 


.0783 


.1105 










/ 


/ 








""""■ 





'i 




\ 


\ 


^^i^'i^n 


2.011 


2.84 


10 








/ 


/ 




















\ 


\ 










/ 
















-J! 






M\ 






( 


) 10 


30 30 „ 40 50 00 i 170 180 
--' pii r ruQ( - Seconds XtAa^^oJ. — 




■^ 1/ 


(o Ft.dz bo.d4 


1775 Ft.& 64.5 Sec: ^USec. Stop^, ' 




^ 













Fig. 171.^ — Power, Speed and Time Curves. 
Manhatten Elevated Railway. Putnam. 

computed from the data given. The energy required to accelerate the 
train from rest to full speed can be obtained by computing the value 
of 1/2 Mv^ in foot-pounds and in kilowatt-hourrs, as illustrated. 

The average tractive effort required to overcome inertia, or to acceler- 
ate the train, is most easily determined by diagrams made to show the 
tractive force required during the acceleration period. This is governed 
partly by the motor characteristics, and also by changes in motors 
by series-paralleling, concatenation, pole change, voltage variation, field 
variation, etc. The average tractive force during a given period or cycle, 
including the time for the train stop, can be determined mathematically 
or by diagrams. Hobart: ''Heavy Electrical Engineering," Chapter X. 



POAVER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS 423 

WATT-HOURS PER TON-MILE. 

Rule. — The watt-hours per ton-mile are found by multiplying the tractive 
resistance, in pounds per ton, by 2. (approx.) Proof: 

H.p. = tractive effort in total pounds, R, X speed in m.p.h. /375. 
H.p. -hours per ton-mile =R X m.p.h. X hours /(375 X tons X 

miles) . 
Watt-hours per ton-mile =R X m.p.h. X hours X 746 /(375 X 

tons X miles). 
= R X 746 /(375 X tons) =Rper tonX2. 

The rule is useful for rapid work and quick conceptions of problems. 
It applies to grades, curves, and acceleration, and for level tangents. 
Power losses in motors, controllers, and transmission line,. are not included. 
Example in power and energy. — ^Assume the average tractive resist- 
ance due to friction, grades, etc., as 15 lb. per ton; a 600-ton train; a 108- 
mile, 4-hour trip at 27 m.p.h. ; motor and control efficiency of 80 per cent. 
Mechanical h. p. output averages 600X15X27/375, or 648 

Watt-hours per ton-mile average 2X15, or 30 

Kilowatt hours of work total .030 X 600 X 108, or 1944 

Energy: Kilowatt hours to the motors, total 1944/. 80, or 2430 
Power: Kilowatts to the motors, average 2430/4, or 607.5 

The motors must be designed with such continuous capacity that the 
root-mean-square of the electric power input will not exceed 607.5 kv.-a. 
Example. — ^Ascent of the Cascade Mountains by G. N. Ry. eastbound 
trains is on a 2.2 per cent, grade for 25 miles. The tractive effort per 
ton for the grade is 44 pounds, the friction at usual speed is 6 pounds, 
and the total is thus 50 pounds per ton. The work or energy required 
at the wheel rim is then 100 watt-hours per ton per mile, quite inde- 
pendent of the speed. The 25-mile run with a 1600-ton train requires 
.100X1600X25, or 4000 kw. hr. If the average speed is 12.5 m.p.h. for 
a 2-hour run, then the average power required at the drivers is 2000 
kilowatts. The efficiency of motor, transformers, and lines is about 69 
per cent. The power from the water power plant is 2900 kilowatts or 
4000 mechanical horse-power. 

Three 1700-h. p. electric locomotives are now used to haul each 2000- 
ton freight train up the 1.7 per cent, tunnel grades. 

Watt -hours per ton -mile required for moving trains equal twice the 
tractive resistance in pounds per ton. An average tractive resistance 
for many trains approximates 10.5. This is about the resistance per 
ton for 10- to 40-car freight trains at 30 to 40 m.p.h. 
Three-car passenger trains, 135 tons, at 30 m.p.h. 
Four-car passenger trains, 140 tons, at 30 m.p.h. 
Eight-car passenger trains, 360 tons, at 35 m.p.h. 



424 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

The watt-hours per ton-mile at 70 per cent, efficiency for motors and 
line are thus (10.5X2)/. 70 or 30. 

Grades compensate themselves, and do not materially increase the 
energy required, so long as the brakes are not applied too much of the 
time. The power required varies with the grade. 

Acceleration of trains increases the average watt-hours per ton-mile, 
since the energy required in starting is higher than in running, even with 
the offset due to the absence of energy while coasting, braking, and stop- 
ping. For example, the average energy is estimated in the following table. 

Length of the train run in miles 20 15 10 5 4 3 2 1 

Watt-hours per ton-mile at station 30 31 33 38 40 45 52 70 

The data are good for the wide range of speed noted above. 

REGENERATION OF feNERGY. 

Regeneration of energy may be effected by mechanical and by electric 
methods, as will now be explained briefly. 

Compensation for inertia and frictional resistance is often effected 
mechanically, particularly in rapid transit service, by elevating the track 
at stations where local stops are made regularly, in order to store and to 
utilize potential energy. Compensation is not so practical where the 
express trains do not stop at the majority of the stations, because smooth 
riding may be prevented, if the elevation of the track is appreciable. 

Central London Railway uses 1.66 per cent, up-grade approach to 
stations to retard the train and to store energy, and uses a 3.30 per cent, 
down-grade, half as long, to assist in accelerating the train in leaving the 
station. The pull due to the down-grade is 66 pounds per ton, which, 
deducting friction, allows a high ratio of acceleration with a small 
amount of electrical energy. 

Manhattan Elevated Railroad takes advantage of such compensation 
at a few stations, where changes of grade are necessary for other reasons. 

In rapid transit service about 40 per cent, of the entire energy is 
consumed in braking, and theoretically this can be saved by regeneration. 

Regeneration by electric motors saves energy which would otherwise 
be lost in the friction of brake shoes on wheel tires. Regeneration in- 
volves the generation of electrical energy by the driving motors, the 
return of this energy to the line, and to other locomotives, or to the power 
station. The amount saved depends upon the steepness and length of 
the grades, and may vary from 20 to 50 per cent, of the total energy to 
the motor. The efficiency of regeneration varies from 60 to 75 per cent, 
and increases with the number of trains. 

Trains running down grade regenerate energy to haul trains up the 



POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS 425 

grade on the other side of the summit of the mountain, thus saving in 
line loss when concentrated loads are hauled. With a double track, a 
train can advantageously start down the grade when another train starts 
up the grade; or with regeneration on a single-track road, trains can meet 
advantageously in the middle of a long grade. 

The energy available in stopping a train varies as the square of the 
speed at the time when brakes or regeneration is applied. The energy is 
(1/2) MV^ in foot-pounds. For example, a 1000-ton train at 30 m. p. h. 
or a 250-ton train at 60 m. p. h., have equal amounts of stored energy. 
The foot-pounds in the later case are (1/2) X250 X2000 X88 X88/32.2, 
or 60,000,000. If such a train is stopped in 60 seconds., the power to be 
gained in regeneration, or destroyed in braking, averages 1820 h. p. 

The down-grade must exceed 0.4 per cent., assuming train friction of 
8 pounds per ton, before energy can be generated by the motors. With 
1.4 per cent, grade the power generated and delivered to the line at 70 
per cent, motor efficiency, by a 1200-ton train at 15 m. p. h., would be 
20 (1.4 -. 4) X 1000 X 15 X. 70/375, or 560 h. p. 

Where stops are infrequent, the effect of regeneration on economy is 
negligible. In any case the torque of the motor approximates zero in 
stopping, and air brakes must be used in connection with regeneration. 

Regeneration with direct -current motors requires shunt-wound motors. 
These were successfully tried in 1887 on the New York Elevated 
Railway. 

The motor field was weakened to increase the speed, and, in slowing 
down, strengthened to send current back to the line and later to a local 
rheostat circuit. No brakes were used. But the series motors have too 
many physical advantages, among them tremendous overload capacity, 
speed, and commutating characteristics and the shunt motors used were 
abandoned. Sprague: A. I. E. E., May, 1899, page 239; May, 1907, page 
713; E. E., Oct. 18, 1893, page 339. 

Sprague showed that a reduction of 40 per cent, could be effected in 
the capacity of a central station. 

Shunt motors were abandoned because: 

1. Motors require fine wire field windings which are not hardy. .The 
horse power so developed is relatively low. 

2. Equalization of motor characteristics is necessary. 

3. Driver diameters must be alike, or some motor will be overloaded. 

4. Speed-torque characteristics are not the most desirable for rapid 
transit work. They cannot be applied to variable speed railroad 
service. 

Regeneration with three-phase motors was first commercially devel- 
oped about 1902 by Ganz Electric Company for the infrequent service on 
grades of the Valtellina Railway in Italy. The regenerative feature, as 



426 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

applied, reduces the fluctuations of the load at the power house to 1.8 
times the average load. In case of a heavy load on the power house, the 
speed of the water wheels and all trains is reduced, and some trains fed 
back into the line. The trains constituted the equivalent of a gigantic 
flywheel and reduced the power-house fluctuations in load and speed. 
The load fluctuations are particularly large with three-phase motors. 

Stillwell refers to a test on a 7-car train, to the lack of complication 
in running down grades, and to the fact that more than 70 per cent, 
of the energy regenerated was restored to the line, and this figure would 
have been higher with steeper grades. In a specific case Ganz guaranteed 
to regenerate over 20 per cent, of the total energy. Cserhati: St. Ry. 
Journ., Aug. 26, 1905, p. 303. 

Armstrong notes that, in the case of the Great Northern Railway, two 
trains running down a grade could, with recuperative power, haul one 
train up the grade on the other side of the mountain. 

Regeneration with single -phase motors is effected by varying the taps 
on the transformers from which the locomotive motors obtain excitation. 
The ratio of transformation, the e. m. f., and the rate of electric power so 
generated by the motors on the down-grade are thus varied. Motor 
designs have compensating windings to neutralize the armature reaction, 
and this permits of a wider range of armature current and field excitation 
than is permissible with ordinary series direct-current railway motors. 
Wm. Cooper: A. L E. E., June, 1907, p. 1469; St. R. J., p. 1145, June 19, 
1907. Single-phase regeneration on grades is carried out to commercial 
advantage on European roads; particularly, the French Southern (Midi) 
Railway on its long hilly divisions. 

Regeneration in practice is applied for safety of operation. Electric 
braking or regeneration is used normally, and the air brakes are held in 
reserve. Economy of train operation requires coasting after the motors 
have attained full speed. On the light down-grades, the tra'n will often 
run at high speed. Ordinarily, regeneration will not be desirable. 

a. Regeneration of energy has no great advantages, nor can the sav- 
ing in energy be large, on ordinary railroads. It has advantages for 
service on long, steep, mountain grades. 

b. Increased safety on grades makes it a valuable adjunct. 

c. Simplicity and reliability are not sacrificed. 

d. Motor capacity must be increased for frequent stop or rapid 
transit service and the capacity, weight, and cost may even be doubled. 
The capacity of motors, cooled with forced draft, in trunk-line mountain- 
grade freight service, need not be increased. 

e. Regeneration tends to smooth out the load, to increase the load 
factor, and economy of power production; and, since the load factor is 
low in the three-phase system, regeneration is of economic importance. 



POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS 



427 



f. Cost of the generating plant, transformers, and transmission lines 
for long trunk-line mountain-freight service, is decreased. 
Good data are not yet available. 

SUMMARIES ON POWER REQUIRED. 

General Consideration. — The motive power equipment of steam rail- 
roads of the United States on June 30, 1910, was about 60,000 steam 
locomotives. This number divided by the aggregate length of the steam 
railroad route length, 240,000, gives .25 locomotives per mile of road; or 
divided by the sum of the single, second, third, fourth tracks, yards, and 
sidings, namely 350,000 miles, gives .17 locomotives per mile of single 
track operated. The average number of square feet of heating surface 
is 2053. Using the constant 0.43, the average horse power is about 884. 
There were 220 h.p. per mile of road, or 150 h.p. per mile of single track. 

Pennsylvania Railroad has about 550 h.p. per mile of route, and 
Pittsburg & Lake Erie, and the Bessemer & Lake Erie, which have heavy 
freight service, require about 1000 h.p. per mile of route. 

The amount of equipment used by electric railroads per mile of track is 
noted in the table which follows. 



POWER EQUIPMENT USED PER MILE IN SINGLE TRACK. 



Locomotives. 



Name of railway. 



No. ' h.p. 



Total h.p. 



Motor cars. 



No. 



h.p. 



Total 
h.p. 



Total. 
h.p. 



Mile- 
age. 



Total h.p. 
per mile. 



New Haven 

Boston & Maine 

Pennsylvania-Longlsland 

Long Island 

West Jersey and Seashore 

Interboro. Subway 

Hudson & Manhattan .... 

Baltimore & Ohio 

Baltimore & Annapolis . . . 

New York Central 

West Shore 

Erie Railroad 

Grand Trunk 

Michigan Central 

Twin City Rapid Transit. 



Rotterdam-Hague- 

Scheveningen. 
Giovi Ry 



41 


960 


2 


1260 


1 


600 


5 


1340 


33 


2500 


























12 










47 


2200 














6 


720 


6 


1100 


2 


200 







20 


1980 



42,480 



54,000 

82,500 









11,600 



103,400 





4,320 

6,600 

400 



39.600 



2 

2 

4 



225 

136 

108 

910 

200 



12 

125 

21 

6 





600 

100 

100 

19 



500 
250 
600 


430 
400 
480 
480 
320 


400 
480 
300 
400 




200 
240 
300 
360 



3,900 



96,750 

54,400 

51,840 

43,680 

64,000 



4,800 

60,000 

6,300 

2,400 





174,000 

6,840 



46,380 

54,000 

179,250 

54,400 

51,840 

43,680 

64,000 

11,600 

4,800 

163,400 

6,300 

2,400 

4,320 

6,600 

174,400 

6.840 



39,600 



100 

22 

95 
164 
154 

85 

18 
7 

35 
150 I 
114 ! 

40 

12 

19 

380 
48 
26 



464 

245 

1887 

332 

336 

5139 

3555 

1657 

1371 

1089 

55 

60 

360 

347 

459 

143 

1525 



Note. — The average steam railroad traffic in the United States passing a given 
point in each direction does not exceed 7 trains per day. 



428 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

EQUIPMENT AND ENERGY USED BY BROOKLYN RAPID TRANSIT CARS. 



No. of 


Ave. wt. 


Motors no. 


H. p. of 


Gear 


Max. 


Watt- 


motor 


of cars 


per car 


each 


ratio 


speed 


hours per 


cars. 


loaded. 


and name. 


motor. 


used. 


m. p. h. 


ton-mile. 


327 


29 


4-101 B W 


40 


5.00 


23.50 


157 


112 


19 


2-93A2 W 


60 


4.12 


28.75 


178 


754 


19 


2-81 W 


60 


4.38 


28.25 


172 


143 




2-68 W 


40 


4.86 


22.00 




92 


19 


2-64 GE 


60 


4.12 


21.50 


140 


125 


29 


4-80 GE 


40 


4.36 


29.00 


164 


659 


39 


2-300 W 


200 


3.37 













Stop per mile not given. E. R. J., June 12, 1909, p. 1073. 



EQUIPMENT AND ENERGY USED FOR MOTOR-CAR TRAINS. 



Name of railway. 


Cars 

per 

train. 


Weight 

in 

tons. 


Schedule 

speed 
m. p. h. 


Stops 

per 

mile. 


H. p. 

of 
motors. 


H.p. 
per 
ton. 


Watt-hr. 
at car per 
car-mile. 


London Electric: 

MetropoKtan 

Bakerloo 

Great Northern .... 
Charring Cross 


4 
3 
4 
4 

7 

6 
6 
5 

jio 

I 10 

6 

1 


141 
71 

88 
85 
132 
101 
200 
148 
224 
361 
360 

100 

165 
101 


15.7 

15.04 

16.22 

16.05 

14.0 

22.0 


2.1 

2.35 

2.35 

2.57 

2.1 

0.9 


800 
400 
400 
400 
500 

2100 
1000 
1440 
2400 
3360 

630 
1000 
1800 

600 

1000 


6.2 
5.6 
4.5 
4.6 
3.8 
5.0 
10.5 
7.0 
6.5 
6.7 
9.3 

6.3 
10.0 
18.0 

3.6 

10.0 


2,220 
2,270 
1,970 
2,320 


North-Eastern 




Boston Elevated 




Manhattan Elevated. . 


14.7 


3.0 


2,750 


Interboro Subway. . . . 


16.2 
23.0 

19.0 
27.0 
40.0 


2.6 

2.0 
1.0 
0.5 


2,890 


Armstrong's data: 
A I E E., Jan. 1904 




p. 70. 






ValteUina Ry 

Berlin Zossen: 
A. E. G. 3-phase. 




100.0 









POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS 



429 



ENERGY REQUIRED FOR MOTOR-CAR TRAINS PER TON-MILE AND PER 

CAR-MILE. 



Name of railway. 


Miles 
per 
stop. 


Sch. 

speed 

m.p.h. 


Cars 

per 

train. 


Train or service 
characteristics. 


Watt-hours 
per ton-mile. 


Watt-hours 
per car-mile. 


a.c. 


d.c. 


a.c. 


d.c. 


BostonElevated 






6 

5-8 

3-6 

5 

10 

6-8 

4 

6 

4. 

1 

1 

1 

1-3 

1 


Elevated 










Manhattan Elevated .... 
Brooklyn Elevated 


0.33 


14-15 


Elevated 

Elevated 

Local service 


82 
170 


70 





2750 


Interboro Subway 




13 

23 

24-30 

25 


79 
58 




2890 


Interboro Subway 




Real rapid transit 




2260 


New York Central 


1.25 
1.60 


Terminal & suburban . 






Long Island R.R 

^^est Jersey & Seashore 


Brooklyn suburban. 
Heavy summer traffic . 
Light winter traffic, 
with electiic heat. 

City service 

Interurban service .... 
E R J., May 1, 1909. 


111 

84 
139 

91 
126 


90 


4040 


3280 














Lake Shore Electric. 




















Marion Bluff ton & E. 


85 


2710 




Chicago, Lake Shore & 

South Bend. 
Twin City Rapid Transit 






Heavy motor-car 

trains. 
City and interurban . . . 
Suburban traffic 


98 
200 






10 




4750 




London Electric 


0.44 
0.47 


15 7 4 


2820 


Central London 


14 7' 7 


Suburban traffic 


50 
55 

80 








City & South London 




4 


Suburban traffic 

Ordinary railroad 














4 
3 
2 

3-e 




































Valtellina Ry. : 






Light ry. service 


86 
62 
71 




















































Measurements were made at the a.c. generator bus-bar at the power 
plant, and at the d.-c. third-rail or trolley feeders at the substation. 

ENERGY REQUIRED FOR NEW YORK, NEW HAVEN AND HARTFORD 
ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE HAULED TRAINS. 



Location of division. 


Length 
miles. 


Service 
noted. 


Train 
tons. 


Speed 
m.p.h. 


No. of 
stops. 


Ave. 

kw. 


Watt- 
hours per 
ton -mile. 


R,per 
ton. 


Stamford to Woodlawn, N. Y. 


20.52 


Express 
passenger. 


488 


49.0 





1010 


30.0 


12.0 


Woodlawn to Stamford, Cona. 


20.52 


Express 
passenger. 


477 


44.7 





860 


35.0 


14.0 


Stamford to Woodlawn, N. Y. 


20.52 


Local 
passenger. 


316 


22.1 


13 


790 


85.4 


34.1 


Woodlawn to Stamford, Conn . 


20.52 


Local 
passenger. 


285 


22.1 


13 


740 


74.2 


29.7 


New Rochelle, N. Y. to Stam- 


16.90 


Local 


500 


26.4 


9 


777 


58.8 


23.5 


ford, Conn. 




passenger. 














New Rochelle, N. Y. to Stam- 


16.77 


Thru 


1428 


36.8 





1370 


25.9 


10.4 


ford, Conn. 




freight. 















See foot notes for above table on next page. 



430 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Passenger locomotive weight was 102 tons. 

Freight locomotive, geared, 071, weight was 140 tons. 

Efficiency of the locomotive motors and auxiliaries approximated 80 per cent. 
Watt-hours per ton-mile divided by 2.0/. 80 gives the average tractive resistance 
per ton for acceleration, grades, curves, and train friction. See also page 414. 

Reference: Murray to A. I. E. E., April, 1911. Tests, February, 1911. 

Watt-hours per ton-mile are a function of the number of stops, 
speed, and air resistance, and number of cars per train. 

Power required if all steam railroads used electric power is roughly 
7 kilowatts per mile of single track, 

Swiss Federal Railway Commission, which has reported on the amount 
of energy required to move all of the steam trains in Switzerland, agreed 
on the following basis for tractive resistance: In express service, from 12 
to 21 pounds per 2000 tons; in passenger service, from 11 to 12.4 pounds; 
Gotthart line, with less favorable conditions, 14.8 pounds; for narrow-gage 
lines, 24.6 pounds. To the theoretical energy required for starting at sta- 
tions and for running, 30 per cent, was added for passenger and freight 
trains, and 110 per cent, for express trains, to allow for changes in speed 
during running, and for starting after signal stops and slow down. 

LITERATURE. 

References on Train Resistance. 

Electric Railway Test Commission Report, 1905 (McGraw, N. Y.); abstract in 

S. R. J., March 25, 1905. 
Berlin-Zossen Electric Railway Tests of 1902-3 (McGraw, N. Y.) ; abstract in 

S. R. J., Sept. 9 and Oct. 28, 1905. 
Henderson: "Locomotive Operation" (Wilson Co., Chicago), Chapter IV. 
Proceedings of New York Railway Club; American Railway Engineering Association; 

American Electric Railway Engineering Association. 
Dynamometer-car tests: Goss, Forsoth, Dennis, Wickhortt, Crawford. 
Carter: Technical Considerations in Electric Railway Engineering, Inst, of Elec. 

Engineers, Jan., 1906. 
Aspinwall: Resistance of Steam Locomotive Hauled Trains, B. I. C. E., Nov., 1901; 

Resistance of Motor-car Trains, E. R. J., May 22, 1909. 
Davis : Tests on Buffalo & Lockport Railway for Resistance of Single Cars and 2-car 

Trains, S. R. J., May and June, 1902; Dec. 3, 1904. 
Stillwell: New York Subway, A. I. E. E., Nov., 1904, p. 723; E. R. J., June 6, 1908. 
Arnold: Resistance of Steam Locomotive Hauled Trains on New York Central, 

A. I. E. E., June, 1902. 
Potter: Tests on Motor-cars at Schenectady, A. I. E. E., June 19, 1902, p. 836. 
Murray: Tests on New Haven Road, A. I. E. E., Jan. 25, 1907; p. 146 April, 1911. 
Clark: Test on C. B. & Q. R. R. on Relation of Friction to Speed with Varying Num- 
ber of Coaches, Western Railway Club, Jan., 1900. 
Blood: Formulas on Train Resistance, S. R. J., June 27, 1903. 
Smith, W. N.: Data on Electric Train Resistance, A. I. E. E., Nov., 1904. 
Renshaw: Tests on Indiana Union Traction Cars, S. R. J., Oct. 4, 1902. 



POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS 431 

Cole: Train Resistance, Ry. Age, Aug. 27 to Oct. 1, 1909. 
McMahon: Tractive Resistance in London Tubes, S. R. J., June, 1899. 
Schmidt: Freight Train Resistance, University of IlKnois Bulletin No. 39, May, 1910; 
A. S. M. E., June, 1910. 

Inertia of Rotating Parts of Trains. 
Storer: A. I. E. E., Jan., 1902; Carter, B. I. C. E., Jan. 25, 1906. 

Speed -time Curves. 

Mailloux: A. I. E. E., June, 1902; S. R. J., July 5, 1902; E. R. J., Feb. 13, 1909. 

Valentine: S. R. J., Sept. 6, 1902; Elec. Journal, Jan., 1908. 

Carter: Predeterminations in (Suburban) Railway Work, A. I. E. E., June 1903. 

Simpson: S. R. J., Feb. 9 and March 23, 1907. 

Wynne: Elec. Journal, Jan. and May, 1906. 

Gears — Effect of Changes on Schedule, Power, and Heating. 

Huffman: Effect of Changing Gears on Motor Equipments, S. R. J., Oct. 29, 1904. 
Storer: Capacity of Motors, and Gear Ratios, Elec. Journal, July and Sept., 1908. 
Conant: Mechanics of Electric Traction, S. R. Review, Dec, 1901. 

High-speed Problems and Effect of Stops. 
Armstrong: A. I. E. E., June, 1898; June, 1902; June, 1903. 

Braking of Railway Cars. 

Parke, Keiley: A. I. E. E., Dec, 1902; S. R. J., Jan. 2, 1904. 
Plumb: S. R. J., June 1, 1907. 

Rae: Energy Required in Braking, S. R. J., Nov. 5, 1904. 
M. C. B. Assoc: Brake Shoe Tests, 1905-6-7-11. 

References on Energy Consumption of Cars. 

Boston Elevated Railway Tests, S. R. J., Jan. 14, 1905. 

Brooklyn Elevated, E. R. J., Jan. 12, 1909. 

Long Island R. R. Lyford and Smith, A. I. E. E., Nov. 25, 1904. 

Manhattan Elevated Coasting Tests. Putnam, A. I. E. E., June, 1910. 

Columbus, O., One- and Two-car Trains, S. R. J., Aug. 31, 1907. 

Cleveland Interurban and City Tests, E. R. J., Nov. 13, 1909; Jan. 8, 1910. 

Indiana Union Traction. Renshaw, S. R. J., Oct. 4, 1902; A. I. E. E., June, 1903. 

Denver & Interurban. E. T. W., Sept. 25, 1910, p. 1026. 

London Electric Railway Tests. E. R. J., Aug. 6, 1910. 

Swiss Government R. R. Commission Report. S. R. J., Nov. 10, 1906, p. 950. 

Gleichman: Power Required for Bavarian Ry. Trains, Elek. Zeit., April 14, 1911. 

Ashe: On Train Testing, S. R. J., May 21, 1904; Dec. 1, 1906; Aug. 24, 1907. 

Bright: Kilowatt-hours per Car-mile, Elec. Journal, Jan., 1906. 

Street: Locomotives vs. Motor Car, Elec. Journal, Oct., 1906. 

Ayres: Car weight. Effect on Power, E. T. W., June 19, 1909; Weight and Operating 

Cost, E. R. J., Oct. 7, 1909. 
Dodd: Power Consumption on Electric Cars, S. R. J., Sept., 1898. 



CHAPTER XII. 
TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES. 

Outline. 

Status of Development. 
Energy Losses: 

Energy losses with low voltages, alternating current for important trans- 
missions, energy losses with converter substations, transmission of three-phase 
current to motors, transmission of single-phase current to motors, design of 
apparatus for high voltages, development of high voltages for railways, 
voltages required. 

Laws Governing Transmissions. 

Impedance and Resistance. 

Transmission Line Engineering : 

Financial basis, electrical energy, location, voltage and cycle, materials 
available, specifications for materials, results to be anticipated. 

Insulators. 

Data on High-voltage Transmissions. 

Data on Steel Towers for Transmission Lines. 

Contact Lines : 

Voltages used, design of contact lines, collection of current, by trolley, shoes, 
pantograph, and bows; two- trolleys wires for three-phase motors. 

Catenary Construction. 

Third-rail Contact Lines. 

Cost of Constructions : 

Insulators, poles, towers, bridges, catenary, third rail. 

Literature. 



432 



CHAPTER XII. 

TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES. 

STATUS OF DEVELOPMENT. 

A study of the development of electric power transmission shows 
that the first electric railways used direct current and a potential of 100 
to 250 volts, and that the two conductors were the two track rails. An 
independent, insulated, positive third rail was soon added, but an over- 
head trolley contact line was usually substituted for the exposed third 
rail. Practical street railways in 1888 used 450 volts; but since 1896, the 
voltage has generally been 600. Direct current, with 660 volts on the con- 
tact line, is now used by most of the interurban railways and by electric 
divisions of terminal railroads. Where heavy trains are operated, 
economy of investment and of energy demand potentials of 3000 to 12,000 
volts, the actual voltage depending upon the speed, number, and weights 
of individual trains, and the distances involved. 

Electrification in the larger sense is chiefly a matter of power trans- 
mission; and in the development of the art, energy for electric trains has 
been generated and transmitted as alternating current. Three steps in 
the development of transmissions are noted. 

a. A single-phase power transmission plant was installed in 1890 at Telluride, 
Colorado, from which a Westinghouse single-phase alternator of 100 h. p., the largest 
then made, transmitted energy at 3000 volts over a distance of 2.6 miles to a similar 
motor at the end of a transmission line. 

b. Three-phase power transmissions were introduced in 1891 by Ferraris, at the 
Frankfort Exposition, when 100 h. p. was transmitted as three-phase current at 
20,000 volts, a distance of 112 miles. E. E., Sept., 1891. 

c. Three-phase long-distance power transmission for commercial service began 
with 11,000 volts about the year 1895 in California, and in 1896 between Niagara and 
Buffalo. This at once allowed an extension of electric roads, since several thousand 
horse power could be transmitted economically over distances of twenty to thirty 
miles. The line voltage could be reduced, at substations along the route by step- 
down transformers, and the alternating current could be converted from three-phase 
to direct current for standard railway motors. This plan was soon adopted by the 
leading electric railway. See details, under "Electric Systems," Chapter IV. 

ENERGY LOSSES. 

Losses with low voltages are large when, with a reasonable expenditure 
for copper lines, electrical energy is transmitted at low potentials, over 
distances of several miles for the propulsion of electric trains. For ex- 
ample, when 1200 kilowatts are transmitted at 1200 volts pressure, over 
a distance of only 12 miles, by twelve 1,200,000 c.tn. copper feeders to 
deliver 1200 h. p. to haul one common passenger or freight train, the 
28 433 



434 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

transmission loss in the feeder and return circuit is 5 per cent, per train. 
If 12 trains are to be operated in the division, it becomes necessary to 
place expensive rotary converter substations about 12 miles apart, and 
to add heavy out-going and return cables. The losses are quadrupled 
when 600 volts are used, but are one one-hundredth as large when 
12,000 volts are used. 

Alternating current at high voltage is required in order to reduce the 
losses in long important power transmissions. Electricity then fur- 
nished a very efficient, simple, and convenient means for the transmission 
of large powers over long distances to heavy, individual train units. 
This is an :nherent advantage of electricity over steam, for common 
long-distance railroad work. 

Energy losses with converter substations are large because of the low 
efficiency of normally underloaded rotary converters, storage batteries, 
and auxiliaries. The transformation and conversion of the energy to 
direct current at many small substations involves a relatively heavy 
investment. High efficiency, economy of labor and of investment 
require the equipment to have a high load factor and uniform traffic. 
Such conditions are seldom found in converter substations. 

Examples from the practice of two large electric railroads are given 
to show the amount of the converter substation losses. 

TRANSMISSION LOSSES ON WEST JERSEY & SEASHORE RAILROAD. 

75 miles of route; 8 rotary converter, 675-volt, d.c. substations. 

Alternating- current, kw-hr. to transmission lines, August, 1906 2,244,020 

Direct-current, kw-hr., from converter substations 1,694,770 

Kw-hr. lost in transmission line, transformers, and converters 549,250 

Per cent, of energy lost 24 . 4 

Alternating-current kw-hr. to transmission lines, March, 1909, 1,850,000 

Kw-hr. lost in transmission, transformers, and converters 519,310 

Per cent, of energy lost 28 

Average loss in 1907 was 27.8 per cent.; 1908,26.2; 1909,21.6; 1910, 20.4 per cent. 

Loss in the 675-volt third-rail is estimated at 15 per cent., making 
the total loss between station and cars over 40 per cent. A change to 
1200 volts would save part of the loss in the third rail and track. 

TRANSMISSION LOSSES ON NEW YORK CENTRAL RAILROAD. 

Cost of power delivered from power station . 58 ^. per kw-hr. 

Cost of power delivered from substations 0. 77 |4. per kw-hr. 

Cost of power delivered to locomotive 1 . 09 ^. per kw-hr. 

This indicates a loss between locomotive and power house of nearly 
50 per cent. The 660-volt, direct-current, third-rail system is used, and 
the 45 miles of route require nine rotary converter substations. 



TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES 435 

These railroads were electrified in 1906, prior to the development of 
high-voltage, alternating-current contact lines. 

For additional data on transmission and converter losses see tables 
on (relative) 'Cost of Steam-Electric Power per Kilowatt Hour," also 
'^ Watt-hours per Car-mile, at power plant and from substations." 

Interurban railways in Indiana and Ohio with rotary 'converter sub- 
stations deliver less than 50 per cent, of the electric power generated 
to the motors on the heavy single cars. Analysis of losses show step-up 
and -down transformer losses 13 per cent., transmission 3 per cent., rotary 
converters 20 per cent., direct-current distribution 21 per cent. 

Transmission of three-phase current at 3000 volts and 15 cycles, and 
the application of electric power to locomotives, without the use of rotary 
converter substations, have been used by several roads in Italy, since 1902. 
The voltage used, 3000, is applied directly on the motor field windings. 
The use of 3000-volt contact lines for heavy train haulage requires 
frequent step-down transformer substations, because the drawbar pull 
from the motors decreases inversely as the square of the motor voltage, 
and the latter must therefore be well maintained. 

Nine substations are required for 66 miles of the Valtellina Railway 
with light traffic; 4 substations for 12.5 miles of the Giovi Railway 
with heavy traffic; 2 stations for the Simplon Tunnel, a 12-mile, single- 
track road; 14 substations on the Burgdorf-Thun, 26-mile, 750- 
volt interurban road. 

Transmission of single -phase, high -voltage current and its utilization 
by railway motors, without transformation and conversion to direct 
current, is a development which began in 1904. Westinghouse engineers, 
among them Mr. B. G. Lamme, after many engineering struggles, equipped 
the first single-phase road, the Indianapolis and Cincinnati Traction, 
46 miles of track, with a 3000-volt contact line. The next long single- 
phase roads, Spokane and Inland Empire, and others, used 6600 volts. 
The use of 11,000 volts on the trolley, directly from the generator, without 
line transformers and converter substations, by the New York, New Haven 
& Hartford, and many other roads, since 1907, for long-distance haulage 
of heavy individual train units, marked an epoch in the transmission 
of energy for railroad transportation. 

Design of suitable apparatus necessarily preceded the transmission 
and utilization of electrical energy at the high voltage required for 
heavy, high-speed electric trains. 

a. Alternators were changed from a type in which the revolving 
element carried the high-voltage coils to a type in which the stationary 
element carried the high-voltage coils. This increased the space available 
and arranged for improved coil insulation. Voltages above 3500 became 
common after 1897, and voltages of 12,000 are now common. 



436 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



b. Transformers were improved, about 1896, by a change in design 
from the air-blast type to the oil-insulated, water-eooled type. In large 
transformers these improvements, with extra insulation on the end coils, 
and greater rigidity allowed potentials of 20,000, 40,000, 60,000, and 
higher voltages for reliable work. 

c. Lightning arresters were designed which protected apparatus and 
lines against break-down from static discharges. Improvements were 
made in the spark-gap, horn, and electrolytic cell types; also in methods 
of installation. Ground wires were strung over the transmission. 

d. Insulators of the pin type for 50,000-volt circuits, and of the sus- 
pension type for 50 to 100,000-volt circuits, were perfected. This provided 
for increased reliability for ordinary service and the factor of safety 
during lightning storms. 



DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES FOR ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 

Contact line. Transmission line. ^ 



Year. 


Direct- i 

current Narae of railway. 

voltage. 


Three- 
phase 
voltage. 


i 

T ^. . ,. No. of 
Location or name oi Ime ., 

i miles. 

i 


1880 


250 
450 
500 
550 
550 
550 
600 
600 
600 
600 
600 
600 
600 






Exhibition 

Richmond Virffinii 


1 


1888 


Union Passenger Ry. 




3 


1894 


Norwich Street Ry 


2,500 

5,500 

6,000 

11,000 

13,000 

33,000 

55,000 

66,000 

110,000 

100,000 

110,000 

125,000 

d. c. 

100,000 

d. c. 


Taftsville, Connecticut 

Lowell, Massachusetts 


4 


1895 


Lowell & Suburban 


15 


1895 


Portland General Electric 

Buffalo Ry. Company 

Twin City Rapid Transit 

Los Angeles Ry ... 


13 


1896 




21 


1897 
1898 


Minneapolis-St. Paul 

Redlands, California 

Helena- Butte 

Niagara Falls 

Grand Rapids, Michigan 

Central Colorado Power 

Niagara-Toronto, etc 

Commonwealth, Michigan 

Indianapolis-Louisville 

Southern Power Co., N. C 

Mozelle-Maizieres, France .... 


9 

■75 


1904 


Butte, Montana 


65 


1906 


Rochester, New York 


165 


1908 


Grand Rapids, Mich 


50 


1909 


Several. Denver 


200 


1910 


Several. Toronto 


180 


1911 




100 


1908 
1911 


1200 
1500 
2000 


Indianapolis & Louisville 


20 
140 


1906 


European, see Chapter IV 


9 


Year. 


Three- 
phase 
voltage. 


Name of railway. 


Three- 
phase 
voltage. 


Location or name of line. 


No. 

of 

miles. 


1896 


500 
750 

3,000 
11,000 

6,000 




500 
16,000 
20,000 
11,000 
33,000 


Lugano, Italy , 


4 


1899 


Burgdorf-Thun Ry 


30 


1902 


Valtellina Ry 




46 


1903 


Zossen experiment 




15 


1909 


Geat Northern Ry 


Cascade Tunnel, Washington. . 


30 









TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES 



437 



DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES FOR ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 

Continued. 

Contact line. Transmission line. 



One- 
Year, phase 
voltage. 



Name of railway. 



Three- 
phase 
voltage. 



Location or name of line. 



No. 

of 

miles. 



1904 
1904 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 
1910 
1911 



2,200 Schenectady Ry 

3,300 : Indianapolis & Cincinnati 

6,600 t Spokane & Inland 

11,000 ! Erie R. R 

11,000 NewYork, NewHaven & Hartford 

12.000 j French Southern or Midi 

15,000 j Bernese Alps R. R 

18,000 Swedish State 



22,000 
33,000 
45,000 
60,000 
11,000 
60,000 
60,000 
80,000 



Ballston Division. . . . 

Indianapolis 

Spokane-South 

Rochester-Mt. Morris 
Woodlawn-Stamford . 

France 

Switzerland 

Norwegian frontier . . 



16 
41 
50 
154 
22 
50 
60 
70 



Voltages required for transmission lines in railway work may be deter- 
mined mathematically, but this is largely a matter of experience, and 
requires a knowledge of the important variables which affect capacity, 
losses, cost of equipment, and operating results. 

Cross-sectional area of copper line is reduced 75 per cent, when the 
voltage is doubled, and therefore the higher practical voltages would be 
used to reduce the cost and loss, were it not that operation becomes more 
dangerous, and that insulation for generators, transformers, transmission 
lines and switches becomes more expensive. 

Standard voltages used for common transmission lines in railway 
work are 6600, 13,000, 33,000, and 66,000. Generator and also contact 
line voltages seldom exceed 12,000 volts. Transmission lines use less 
than 1000 volts per mile of line. 



LAWS GOVERNING TRANSMISSIONS. 

Laws governing transmissions are stated briefly: 

a. With unit energy transmitted, the voltage and current generated 
will vary inversely. 

b. With unit work done, unit loss in line, and fixed voltage at the 
terminals of the line, the weight of copper will vary as the square of the 
distance; its cross-section will vary directly as the distance; and the 
weight of copper will vary inversely as the square of the voltage at the 
terminals of the line. 

c. With unit cross-section, the distance over which a given amount 
of power can be transmitted will vary as the square of the voltage. 

d. With unit weight of copper, unit amount of power transmitted, 
and unit loss in distribution, the distance over which power can be 
transmitted will vary directly as the voltage generated. 



438 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Kelvin*s Law which governs transmissions is this: 

The annual cost due to line loss and interest charges should be equal; 
or the interest should equal the loss. Stated in another way: "The sum 
of the annual cost of the energy lost in the line and the annual cost of 
interest and depreciation should be a minimum." A consideration of 
the variable portions of the two sets of costs greatly simplifies the calcu- 
lations on the most economical loss and investment. This subject is 
treated at length in many electrical text-books. 



IMPEDANCE AND RESISTANCE. 

Line Losses are caused by resistance, but the drop in voltage in an 
alternating-current line is a function of the reactance. The effective 
resultant is called the impedance. • In electric circuits impedance, and 
not the ohmic resistance only, must be considered. With alternating 
current the impedance of a copper transmission line is about 50 per cent, 
higher, and of steel rails is 600 to 800 per cent, higher, than with direct 
current; but the current itself is smaller. 

Losses, in watts, equal the product of the resistance of the wires and 
the square of the current in the wires. The energy loss is transformed 
into heat. The drop in the line, in volts, is the product of the line resist- 
ance or impedance and the current. 

Cycles affect the loss of voltage in transmission lines, and in copper 
and third-rail contact lines. The higher the number of cycles used, the 
greater is the impedance to the flow of current. With 60 cycles, the 
impedance is so high that this frequency is not used in electric railroading. 

Resistance of copper wire, in ohms, is found by multiplying the 
resistance, K, of 1 foot of copper wire, 1 circular mil in diameter by the 
length of the wire in feet and dividing the product by the number of 
circular mils". K= 10.35 ohms at 68° F., or 20° C, and increases 0.4 
per cent, per degree C. Every third larger sized wire has twice the cross- 
section, twice the weight, and one-half the resistance. 

Heating of wires must be considered. For a given resistance the 
heating effect varies as the square of the current. With fluctuating 
loads, the heating effect varies as the root-mean-square of the currents. 

Voltage drop or voltage loss in line affects motor characteristics, 
drawbar pull, speed, and heating. An average contact line loss of 10 
per cent., and a maximum of 20 per cent., are usually provided for 
direct-current and single-phase work. These losses must be much 
smaller in three-phase contact lines, for a 10 per cent, loss in voltage 
causes a 19 per cent, decrease in the drawbar pull of the motor. 



TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES 
IMPEDANCE VALUES OF SINGLE-PHASE LINES. 



439 



No. and 
wt. of 


No. and 
size of 


Impedance, total in 
ohms per mile. 


i 

Rail 
cur- 


Notes, 


rails. 


trolleys. 


25 cycles. 


15 cycles. 


rent. 




8-100 lb . . . 


4-0000 


.165 


.112 


.75 


With two 00 feeders. 


8-100 lb . . . 


4-1000 


.189 




130 


.75 


Without feeder. 


4-100 lb . . . 


2-0000 


.310 




220 


.58 


Without feeder. 


2-100 lb . . . 


1-0000 


.553 




396 


.40 


Without feeder. 


2-100 lb . . . 


1-000 


.600 




425 


.40 


Without feeder. 


2-100 lb . . . 


i Not any. 


.030 




020 


.40 


A. c. resistance only. 


2-100 lb . . . 


Not any. 


.025 






.58 


A. c. resistance only. 


2-100 lb . . . 


Not any. 


.080 




048 


1.00 


A. c. resistance only. 


2-100 lb . . . 


1-000 


.047 




028 


1.00 


A. c. reactance only. 


Not any .... 


1-0000 


.026 




026 


1.00 


A. c. resistance only 


Not any 


1-000 


.470 






.... 


Impedance. 


Not any 


1-0000 

i 


.400 








Impedance. 



Data which do not specify the relative current in trolley and rail are not valuable.^ 
Copley's measurements, given in Transactions, A. I. E. E., July, 1908, page 1171, 
are based on height of trolley of 22 feet, double catenary, 0000 rail bonds, and 60 to 
70 per cent, power-factor. 

Rosenthal, in ''Transmission Calculations," has furnished other tables. See also 
Dawson, "Electric Traction for Railways," page 451; Parshall and Hobart, "Electric 
Railway Engineering/' page 283; Murray, A. I. E. E., April, 1911, p. 751. 

Impedance for other sizes of rail can be readily computed. The relative impedance 
at 25 and at 15 cycles should be as the square roots of the cycles, or as 1 .29 to 1 .00. 
The steel catenary or messenger cable in parallel with the trolley reduces the 
above impedance values about 10 per cent. 

The ratio of impedance to direct-current resistance of trolley wire, at 25 cycles, is 
1 .5 and the ratio for rails is about 6.0, but the current in the rails is small. 

The resistance to direct current of two 100-pound steel rails is . 03 ohms per mile. 



TRANSMISSION LINE ENGINEERING. 

A clear understanding of the real problem involved in a transmission 
line must first be obtained. The extent of each item forming a part of a 
problem can be studied by means of an outline of the financial, technical, 
constructive, and operating features which are involved. Instead of an 
extended treatment of the subject, an outline frequently used by the 
writer in his work, one suitable for general consideration, is presented on 
the next page. 



440 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 




Fig. 172. — Example of Fusxible Steel 

Tower for Transmission Line. 
Eight-inch channels. Pin type insulators. 



OUTLINE FOR STUDY OF TRANS- 
MISSION LINE ENGINEERING. 

Financial Basis : 

Earnings, present and ultimate condi- 
tions, effect on smaller undertakings, and 
effect on economy of plants. 

Value of energy cost per kw-hr. trans- 
mitted, total cost of energy delivered. 
Competition and reputation ; duplication 
of lines, voltage regulation. 

Electrical Energy : 

Present and future load; power factor 
and load factor. 

Location : 

Accessibility of locality, geography and 
elevations, freight charges, frequency of 
electric storms, precipitation, right-of- 
way and terminals, rivers, valley, swamp, 
lakes, special span constructions, fran- 
chise and municipal restrictions, cross- 
ings over steam railroads. 

Voltage and Cycles ; 

Length of line, amount of load, type of 
insulator, protection of the public, sepa- 
ration of wires, inductive effect on line, 
impedance constants and losses, effect 
on cost of all equipment. 

Materials Available : 

Conductor: Aluminum or copper, cross- 
sectional area, stranding, mechanical 
strength, electrical resistance. 
Poles : Wood or concrete ; kind and char- 
acter, cutting and sap, life and treatment, 
length and body. 

Towers of Steel: Frame or pipe, angle 
or channel, two, three, or four legs. 
Insulators : Porcelain, glass, pin types, 2 
to 5 shells; steel or wood pins; disk, cone, 
and suspension types. 

Specifications for Materials : 

Quantity, quality, details of design, 
tests for acceptance. 

Results to be Anticipated : 

Guarantees, limitations, lack of funds, 
local conditions. 



TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES 



441 



INSULATORS. 
Insulators for high voltage lines are made of porcelain. This is the 
only material which is adequate. Best clays are selected, great skill 
is used in manufacture, and in burning. By design, porcelain is not 
utilized to carry tensile stresses. In compression its strength is 
16,000 to 20,000 pounds; in shear, 2400 to 2700 pounds; in tension, 650 
to 3300 pounds per square inch. 




Fig. 



173. — Example op Flexible Steel Tower for Transmission Line. 
Latticed angles. Suspension type disk insulators. 



Pin type insulators usually consist of 3 or more shells or pieces per 
insulator, mounted on one pin. The malleable iron pin has replaced 
the wooden pin, which in time was ^'digested" by static currents. 

Suspension type insulators were first used in 1907. They have long 
and well-interrupted insulating surfaces to limit the surface leakage. 



442 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



Several 20,000 to 25,000-volt disks or cones are suspended in a series, to 
insulate for any potential used. 

Advantages of suspension type insulators: Torsional strains on the 
cross arms are decreased, but cross arms must be longer, and torsional 
stresses on the towers are increased. Flexibility is obtained to reduce 
the mechanical stresses. Cost of high-A^oltage insulators is increased. 
Factors of safety are raised in power transmission. 




Fig. 174. — Two 25,000-volt Units of a Suspension Type Insulator. 



The pin type insulator gives fair results up to 50,000 volts. The 
suspension type is now practically standard above 50,000 volts. In 
either case, an overhead ground wire is used, to assist in preventing the 
puncture of insulators by lightning, except on the Commonwealth Power 
Company and Grand Rapids-Muskegon, Michigan, transmissions, using 
125,000 and 110,000 volts. 



TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES 
DATA ON IMPORTANT HIGH-VOLTAGE TRANSMISSIONS. 



443 



Name of transmission company. 


Length 


Kilowatts 


Voltage 


No. of 


Year 




miles. 


delivered. 


on lines. 


cycles. 


built. 


Connecticut River Power Company, Vernon, Vt. . 


66 


15,000 


66,000 


60 


1908 


Hudson River Electric Power Co., Glen Falls, N. Y. . 


18 


5,000 


44,000 


38 


1901 


Schenectady Power Company 


20 


12,000 


32,000 


38 


1909 


Niagara, Lockport & Ontario Power Company 


160 


15,000 


60,000 


25 


1906 


Toronto & Niagara Falls Power Company 


180 


10,000 
82,500 


60.000 


25 


1907 


Canadian Niagara Falls Power Company 


15 


62,500 


25 


1905 


Electrical Development Company, Niagara, Ontario . 


80 


95,000 


60,000 


60 


1909 


Buffalo, Lockport & Rochester Ry. ; distribution froEi 


20 


15,000 


60,000 


25 


1895 


Niagara Falls. 












Hydro-electric Power Commission of Ontario (290 


180 


40,000 


110,000 


25 


1910 


miles of towers). 












Shawinigan Water and Power Company 


80 


50,000 


56,000 


30 


1903 


Hamilton Cataract and Power Company 


40 


25,000 
22,500 


45,000 


66 


1909 


Winnipeg Electric Ry. Company 


65 


60,000 


60 


1904 


Rochester Ry . and Li^'ht Company 


30 


8,000 
30,000 


57,000 


25 


1907 


Pennsylvania Water and Power Company, McCalls 


40 


70,000 


25 


1910 


Ferry, Pennsylvania. 












Southern Power Company, Charlotte, North Caro- 


55 


50,000 


45,000 


60 


1907 


lina* 1230 miles of tower line. 


240 


80,000 
8,000 


100,000 


60 


1910 


Grand Rapids-Muskegon Power Company, Croton to 


40 


72^000 


30 


1903 


Grand Rapids. 


50 


10,000 


110,000 


30 


1908 


Indiana & Michigan Electric Company 


50 


15,000 
6,000 


47,800 
40,000 


60 


1909 


Southern Wisconsin Power Company, Kilbourn, 


111 


25 


1909 


Watertown, Milwaukee. 












La Crosse Water Power Company, Wisconsin 


47 


4,800 


46,000 


60 


1909 


Great Northern Power Co., Duluth 


14 


10,000 


60,000 


25 


1910 


St. Croix Falls Improvement Company, Minneapolis 


41 


20,000 


50,000 


60 


1907 


Taylor's Falls. 












Northern Colorado Power Company, Denver 


126 




66,000 




1909 


Central Colorado Power Company, 430 miles of lines. 


153 


12,300 


100,000 


60 


1909 


Telluride Power Company, Provo, Utah 


55 


20,000 


44,000 


60 


1898 


Helena Power Transmission Company 


57 


4,000 


57,000 


60 


1900 


East Helena -Anaconda 


80 


20,000 


70,000 


60 


1908 


Great Falls Power Company, Great Falls- Anaconda. . . 


150 


30,000 


100,000 


60 


1910 


Spokane & Inland Empire R. R. Company 


100 


40,000 


66,000 


60 


1907 








50,000 


25 


1909 


Washington Water Power Company, Spokane 450. . 




20,000 
30,000 


63,000 


60 


1902 


Puget Sound Power Company, Tacoma-Seattle 


80 


60,000 


60 


1903 


Seattle-Tacoma Power Company 


110 


21,000 


60,000 


60 


1898 


Northern California Power Company 


60 


10,000 


60,000 


60 


1909 


Great Western Power Company, Big Bend-Oakland. 


154 


40,000 


100,000 


60 


1909 


Sierra & San Francisco Power Company, 1400 of lines. 




90,000 


104,000 


60 


1908 


California Gas and Electric Corporation, Colgate to 


117 






60 




Mission San Jose: Electra to Oakland. 


145 
117 






60 
50 




Pacific Light & Power, Kern River, Los Angeles 


30,000 


75,000 


■1908 


Southern California Edison Company 


81 


3,000 


33,000 


50 


1898 







444 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

STEEL TOWERS FOR TRANSMISSION LINES. 



Name of power transmission. 



No. and size 
of conductors. 



Kilo- 
volts. 



No. 

of 

arms. 



. Spread 
of 



Type and 
parts per 
insulator. 



Normal 
length 
of span. 



Schenectady Power 

Niagara, Lockport & Ontario 

Ontario Hydro-electric 

Southern Power, N.C 

Grand Rapids-Muskegon 

Commonwealth, Michigan 

Southern Wisconsin. 

Milwaukee Electric 

La-Crosse, Wisconsin 

St. Croix Falls-Minneapolis 

Great Northern, Duluth 

Winnipeg Electric Ry 

Telluride (Colorado) Power 

Central Colorado Power 

Northern Colorado Power 

Utah Light & Power 

Great Falls Power Co 

Anaconda Copper Extension 

Washington Water Power, Spokane . 

Great Western, San Francisco 

Sierra and San Francisco 

Los Angeles, Kern River 

Arizona Power M. & M 

Guanajuato, Mexico 

Nexaca, Mexico 



6-000 & G 

3-00 

6-0000 & G 

6-00 & 2G 

3-2 

3-2 

6-0 & G 

6-0 & G 

3-2 & G 

3-0000 & G 

6-00 

6-00 



3-0 & 2 G 



6-0 & G 

6-0 & 2 G 

3-0 & G 

6-000 & G 

6-000 & G 

3-00 

9-0000 

6-0 

3-1 & G 

6-000 & G 



32 

60 

110 

100 

110 

125 

40 

40 

46 

50 

60 

60 

44 

100 

66 

40 

100 

100 

60 

100 

104 

75 

52 

60 

60 



17'-0" 
7'-0" 



6'-0" 
8'-0" 
6'-0" 
6'-0" 
6'-0" 
6'-0" 
7'-0" 



6'-0" 
12'-0" 
10'-4" 



10'-4" 
10'-4" 



13'-0" 
8'-0" 
6'-0" 

lO'-O" 
6'-0" 
6'-0" 



Disk, 2 
Pin, 3 
Susp., 8 
Disk, 4 
Disk, 5 
Disk, 8 
Disk, 3 
Disk, 3 
Pin, 4 
Pin, 3 
Pin, 3 
Pin. 
Susp. 
Susp. 4 



Susp. 6 
Susp. 6 



Susp. 4 
Susp. 5 
Pin, 4 
Susp. 
Pin, 3 
Pin, 3 



550' 
550 
550 
600 
528 



528 
528 
480 
440 
400 
450 



600 
600 
600 



750 
800 
542 



440 
500 



Conductors are of copper except in the Southern Wisconsin; Ontario Hydro- 
electric Power; Niagara, Lockport & Ontario. 

G signifies a protecting cable, usually of 7-strand steel, strung over the tower. 



TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES 
STEEL TOWERS FOR TRANSMISSION LINES. 



445 



Name of 
transmission. 


Name of 
manufacturer 


Height 

of 
tower. 


No. 

of 

legs. 


Width 

at 
base. 


Wt. of 

tower 

lb. 


Data 
on 

posts. 


Kind 

of 
steel. 


Schenectady Power 

Niagara, Lockport & On- 
tario 


Milliken 

Aermotor 


48-71 


4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
3 
3 
4 
4 

2 


17'-7" 
6'-0" 
6'-0" 

17'-0" 


4350 




Gal. 


2ix2ixi L 


Gal. 


Archbold B. 
Canadian B . 


45-50 


Plain. 


Ontario Hydro- electric. 
McCalls Ferry Power . . . 


4000 








40-60 

35 

40 

50 

40-53 

45 

40 

40 

48 






Southern Power, N. C. 


Aermotor. . . 
Aermotor. . . 

Milliken 

Aermotor. . . 
Aermotor. . . 
Aermotor. . . 
Aermotor . . 
Archbold B. 




2400 
3080 
3500 
1700 
1900 

2150 
2250 
2200 

2140 










3x3x3/16 L 


Gal 








Grand Rapids-Muskegon . 
Commonwealth, Michigan 




3x3x3/16 L 


Gal 


12'xl7' 

12'-0" 

12'-0" 

9'-0" 


Gal 


Southern Wisconsin 

Milwaukee Electric Ry. . 
St. Croix-Minneapolis 
^^innipeg Electric Ry 


3x3x1/4 
3x3x1/4 
9"-13| ch. 


Gal. 
Gal. 
Plain. 


Central Colorado 

Telluride (Colorado)power 
Great Falls Power & T. 


Milliken 

U.S.Wind... 
Amer. Bdge 


44 
51-58 


4 

4 
4 


13'xl4' 
13'xll' 
13'-0" 
lO'-O" 
16'-0" 
17'-0" 
15'-0" 

12'xl3' 

9'-0" 


L 

4x4x1/4 L 


Gal. 
Plain. 


Anaconda Copper 

Washington Water Power, 


Aermotor 








U.S.Wind... 
Milliken .... 


50-68 
61 


4 
4 
4 

4 

4 
4 
3 


3800 

3400 

[4250 

\4950 

1125 


4x4x1/4 L 










Los Angeles, Kern River. 

Arizona Power M, & M. . 

Guanajuato, Mexico 

Nexaca, Mexico 


U.S.Wind. . 

U.S.Wind... 
Aermotor. . . 
U.S.Wind... 


54-60 

33-42 
41-47 
26-42 


4x4x5/16 L 
2fx2|xl/8 L 


Gal. 

Gal. 
Gal 


14'-0" 




3x3xi 


Gal 







Height of tower is measured from the connection near the surface of the ground to the lowe3t 
transmission cross arms. The steel work below the ground is generally less than one-seventh of 
the height to the upper cross arm. 

CONTACT LINES. 

Voltages are usually 600 for third-rail lines, and 600, 1200, 3300, 6600, 
and 11,000 volts on overhead trolley contact lines. The current is 
reduced proportionally as the voltage is increased. 

Design of contact lines for electric railway train service involves 
these essentials: Mechanical strength, electrical carrying capacity, 
collection of current, and adequate support or suspension. 

a. Mechanical strength is gained by the use of 3/0 and 4/0 grooved- 
section, hard-drawn copper wire. Smaller sizes are not used in rail- 
roading because of the danger from breakage after pitting, arcing, hard 
spots, crystallization, and wear. A 4/0 wire has a tensible strength of 
7000 pounds, or 5000 at joints, and a working tension of 2000 pounds. 

b. Electric carrying capacity is generally many times larger than 
necessary to prevent overheating of conductors. 

c. Collection of current from contact lines requires that the con- 
tact point, line, or surface be ample to prevent arcing. 



446 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Trolley wheels, cylinders, or rollers, without seriously burning the 
wire and wheel, collect 1200 amperes at 5 m. p. h; 600 amperes at 15 
m. p. h. ; 350 amperes, at 40 m. p. h.; and 200 amperes at 60 m. p. h., 
the latter with catenary construction. New cooled contact points are 
continually negotiated. A pressure of 30 to 40 pounds is required 
between the wheel and the wire, for speeds of 50 to 60 m. p. h. Wheel 
collectors are seldom used in electric train service. When a trolley 
wheel jumps off the contact line at high speed, the overhead work 
suffers; and at low speed the drawbars are jerked out. 

Third -rail contact shoes, of malleable iron, at 30 m. p. h., readily 
collect 2200 amperes, and at 60 m. p. h., 600 amperes. 

Pantographs with a wide sliding shoe are also used for the collection 
of heavy current from an overhead line. Brooklyn Bridge Railroad 
used pantographs before the third rail was installed. Small pantographs 
are used on locomotives to reach overhead third rails in switching 
yards. Three-phase and single-phase high-speed railroad trains re- 
quire pantographs. In train service, contacts are usually in parallel. 

Bows are a modification of the pantograph, in which either a cylin- 
drical roller, or a metallic contact shoe of iron or aluminum, shaped as 
a bow, is placed between two light-weight supporting pipes. Bows are 
made in many styles but they are lighter than pantographs. They are 
often compounded, so that the lower part makes the large variations 
in elevation, while the small bow, mounted upon the long heavy frames, 
easily follows the minor variations in elevation. 

Height of contact wire has a great deal to do with the operation of 
a trolley, pantograph, or bow-collector. European roads place the 
trolley wire 16 to 17 feet above the rails. American roads place the 
trolley 22 to 24 feet above the rail. A small change in track alignment 
makes a wide lateral change at the contact; and trouble seems to vary 
about as the square of the height of the trolley wire above the rail. 

The mechanics of current collection from overhead lines is this: A 
point must be kept in contact with a line. This contact point travels at 
speeds up to 68 m. p. h. or 100 feet per second. During this second, 
the contact wire varies 2 to 3 inches in its elevation. The forces acting 
on the pantograph or bow, to keep the point and the wire in contact, 
vary as the mass and the square of the velocity. Therefore, the ideal 
bow or pantograph is one with minimum weight. The velocity referred 
to is the rate of change of the contact point in its vertical position. 
The ideal line is thus one in which the wire does not sag. The wire 
supports between the brackets or bridges are placed at short intervals to 
prevent a rapid change in the vertical position, for these changes must 
be followed by the bow or pantograph. This involves a taut line, which 
requires infinite tension. Since wires stretch, gradually slacken at 



TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES 447 

curves, and vary greatly in length with the temperature, an automatic 
adjustment in the tension by weights or springs is desirable. On many 
European roads the trolley is anchored at one end and attached at the 
other end to a weight, hung over a pulley, of 2000 pounds per mile of line. 

The contact line support must be flexible in order to prevent local- 
ization of the contact pressure of the pantograph at the supporting 
points. Intensity of pressure or of blows must be avoided, to reduce the 
work of destruction and the maintenance expense. A moving contact 
follows a rigid line, with- destructive chattering s^d vibra^tion. 

On a 300-foot span, a 5-point suspension, two very light multiple 
contacts, and small pressure from a bow, works out about as well as a 
20-point suspension, one contact, and heavy pressure from a pantograph. 

A large number of types of catenary suspended line have been tried 
by the Pennsylvania Railroad. Elec. Ry. Journ., Dec. 12, 1908, p. 1546. 

Two overhead trolley contact wires are required with 3-phase motors. 
There is a difference of potential of 3000 to 6000 volts between the wires. 
Two overhead wires have the following disadvantages : 

Tw^o contact wires must be supported and insulated from each other, 
and from their mechanical supports. 

Catenary line supports parallel to the two trolleys, if used, would 
make an expensive construction. 

Danger exists, due to the complication and to the short distance 
between the two wires. (On the three-phase European roads, real 
high-speed service is not attempted.) The use of 6000 or 11,000 volts 
between the two wires would thus be at a disadvantage for ordinary, 
50 to 60 m.p.h. railroad traffic. 

Cost of supports, insulators, switch work, labor, and copper, is about 
twice that for the single contact line. 

Maintenance cost is greater than with a single contact line. 

Poles and overhead construction are heavier, because the weight to 
be supported and the strains to be balanced are doubled. 

Weight of two wires for the 3000- or 6000-volt, three-phase system is 
much greater than that of one wire for the single-phase system at 11,000 
volts, because the current per wire is higher for the low voltages. 

Current per wire, for an ordinary railway train, or about 1000 kv-a., is 
given in the following table. 

AMPERES PER CONTACT LINE, 1000 KV-A., 1 AND 3-PHASE SYSTEM. 



Potentials used. 



One-phase, 1-wire system. Three-phase, 2-wire system. 



3,000 volts. 333 amperes. 192 amperes. 

6,000 volts. 166 amperes. 96 amperes. 

11,000 volts. 98 amperes. | 52 amperes. 



448 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



The use of 11,000 volts has been well standardized by single-phase 
railroads and, except for Great Northern Ry., 3000 volts is used by -all 
three-phase railroads. 

Contact line losses are higher for the low- voltage three-phase system. 

Pounds of copper required for the three-phase system are 14 per cent, 
greater than for the single-phase, for same voltage. 

One trolley or two trolleys, about 36 inches apart, must be used in 
heavy electric railroading. The subject deserves consideration in view 
of the cost, the complication, and the danger. 

"One object of all engineering is to dispense with complications and unnecessary- 
parts, unless some paramount advantage is gained by complication. Everything 
points to the ultimate adoption of a single working conductor wherever heavy electric 
railroading is to be expected. There are complications enough with only one working 
conductor at points of limited clearance to convince railway engineers of the undesir- 
ability of increasing the complications by the addition of another conductor." 

"It is a vast problem to install, in a switchyard containing a maze of tracks, a 
system of electric power supply utilizing a single conductor. Imagine what is to be 
done to supply this yard with two overhead conductors in addition to the ground 
return. The great difficulty and the enormous complications in overhead construc- 
tion in switching is one of the most serious handicaps of the three-phase system 
of traction." Steinmetz: General Electric Co., to A. I. E. E.,. June, 1905, page 516. 

One great problem in electric traction is the transfer of energy in 
large quantities, at high potentials, from an overhead contact line to 
a rapidly moving locomotive used on the main line or in freight switch- 
ing yards. This transfer of energy is facilitated with one overhead con- 
tact line over each track. The cost of one or two overhead trolley 
wires is important, but simplicity and safety are paramount. 

CONTACT LINES USED ON THREE-PHASE RAILROADS. 



Name of railway. 


Diameter. 


Gage 

No. 


Circular 
mils. 


Normal 
span. 


Height 


mm. 


inches. 


above rail. 


Burgdorf-Thun 

Valtellina 

Simplon, two 

Giovi 


8.0 
8.0 
8.0 
8.3 
11.2 


.315 
.315 
.315 
.326 
.460 







4/0 


100,000 
100,000 
200,000 
106,000 
211,600 


115' 

83 

85 

100 

100 


17'-0'' 
17'-0" 
17'-0'' 
17'-0'' 


Great Northern 


24'-0'' 



TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES 



449 



i 
, ., 1 Voltage 
Name of railway. , 
used. 

: 


Wire centers. 

! 

normal, curves. 


Contactor 
type. 


Span or 
brackets. 


Speed 
m.p.h. 


Burgdorf-Thun...! 750 

Valtellina 3000 

Simplon 3000 

Giovi 3000 


36.0" 

34.5 

39.0 


34 . 5'' 


Bow 

Pantograph. . . . 

Bow 

Pantograph .... 
Trolley wheels. 


Bracket . 
Both.. . . 
Span. . . . 
Span. . . . 
Both 


24 
40 
43 

28 


Great Northern... 6000 


60.0 




15 



Switch work for three-phase overhead construction is complicated 
at best, but not impracticable. Certain rules are to be followed: 

One wire must not occupy such space that the collector can cause a short circuit 
to the other ^vire. 

Two or more collectors may be used on a locomotive or along a motor-car train, 
but these must not cause a short circuit. In general it is not much more dangerous 
to use two collectors per train than one. Valtellina Railway uses two, 38 feet apart 
on motor cars, and 23 feet apart on locomotives. 

If the two wires have unequal sags, bad alignment, or over- or under-separation, 
a foul will be caused by the action of the collectors in running above or at the side of 
one wire, or between them. 

Mechanical contact must necessarily be continuous in switch work, either by 
dead or live wires. Collectors must not travel free in the air as in the case of a 
third-rail shoe. 

Electrical circuits must be continuous; that is, power must be available at all 
times. Trains must be started at all switches. Breaks in the current will cause 
drawbars to be pulled out. Power to reverse must be available to prevent accident. 

Separation of track sections, for the control of circuits, necessarily increases the 
complication. 

CATENARY CONSTRUCTION. 

Suspension of a contact wire by hangers from a steel messenger 
cable, which has several times the strength of hard-drawn copper con- 
tact wire, is known as catenary construction The plan is used to ob- 
tain long spans, strength, safety, and a level contact wire. In detail: 

Supports for the messenger cable are usually structural steel bridges 
for long spans, and wood or steel poles for medium spans. 

Messenger cables made of double-galvanized plow steel of highest 
tensile strength are used, and spans of from 250 to 300 feet are easily 
carried. A 1/2-inch 7-strand cable has a minimum elastic limit of about 
6000 pounds, which is 60 per cent, of its breaking strain. 

Tensile strains in a suspended messenger or catenary cable are 

proportional to WLV8D, where W is the weight of the load in pounds 

per running foot (about 1 pound for 4/0 trolley, 1/2-inch messenger, 

and 15 feet between suspenders), L is the length of the cable span, in 

29 



450 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

feet, and D is the sag of the cable span, in feet. In case a support is 
broken, L is doubled and the strains are increased about 40 per cent. 
Coatings of ice 1/2 inch thick, and wind pressures of about 8 pounds 
per square foot must be considered. 

Insulators for messenger cables are porcelain; for guys are of impreg- 
nated wood in series with porcelain. When the voltage is 6000, wood 
may be used in tension, but porcelain is always used in compression. 

Suspenders are used between the messenger cable and the contact 
line. Suspender links should be flexible, to prevent arcing by the con- 
tactor, and bent, looped, curved, or coiled suspenders can be used 
as well as straight solid rods. Links must not be loose to wear, or con- 
tain cup-pointed set screws which cut the cable; and so bolted clamps 
usually connect the ends of the suspender to the cable and contact line. 
A horizontal spacing of clamps of 18 to 25 feet is common practice. 

Contact lines are built of grooved copper wire, without or with a 
steel wire hung below and parallel to the copper wire. With the com- 
pound, or multiple catenary construction, great flexibility is gained by 
suspending the steel contact wire from the copper wire at points half 
way between the suspenders from the messenger. Brackets which sup- 
port messenger cables are hinged, to allow slight vertical, and also some 
horizontal swing. 

Catenary construction for three-phase railways should be similar 
to that of single-phase railways if speeds are to be high on the former. 
The necessity of insulating the catenary cables from each other, and 
from the supporting structure, is evident. Catenary cables, parallel to 
the contact line, have not yet been adopted by three-phase roads. 

Berlin-Zossen contact line construction with three 11,000-volt wires 
in a vertical plane was a failure. The complication and cost were too 
great; yet there Avere no switches from the main line. The side pres- 
sure between the bows and the contact lines was very light. 

Valtellina Railway, and Great Northern Railway trolley wires are 
usually supported, near each pair of poles, by two independent steel span 
cables, and the latter are spread about 39 inches. When brackets are 
used the two trolleys are supported from two independent steel span 
cables, spread about 13 inches, each cable supporting a trolley wire 
from an insulated hanger. 

Simplon terminal yard construction is designed to support two trolleys from two 
cross-suspended wires stretched between light tubular steel supports. Vertical steel 
supports are in tripod form, and, where they straddle 6 tracks, a horizontal tie bar 
is placed between the upper ends of the tripods. The uprights are fixed to earth 
plates imbedded in two feet of concrete, and take up a very small portion of the way, 
give great stability, are cheap, and do not obstruct the view of signals. 

Simplon Tunnel construction involves copper plated steel cross wires stretched 
between gun-metal studs grouted into the face of the tunnel, the cross wires being 



TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES 



451 



insulated with common porcelain and drawn tight. The studs are 82 inches apart. 
The trolley wire is secured by means of ebonite-covered bolts to gun-metal cross bars, 
the ends of which are screwed into bell-shaped porcelain insulators, a layer of hemp 
and asbestos being interposed between the screws and the porcelain at each end. 




Fig. 175. — Great Northern Railway. Insulator Support in Concrete Roof of Tunnel, Paral- 
lel TO the Contract Line. 

These porcelain insulators are in turn screwed into gun-metal end caps with a layer 
of "rubber, which is imposed to give elasticity to the whole insulator and thus to pre- 
vent a fracture. The insulators are tested to 40,000 volts, while the maximum 
working voltage is 3300. 




Fig. 1'i6. — Great Northern Railway, Cascade Tunnel Yards. View of Switchwork. 



The tunnel hne is 12 1/2 miles long. Power plants are placed at each end. Two 
trolley wires, each 100,000 cm., are used for each phase to avoid the handling of 
heavier wire in the tunnel. If one wire breaks or becomes defective it can be cut 
away or renewed with facility. The overhead wires are arranged in zigzag fashion, to 
equalize the wear along the ollecting bow. 



452 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



Giovi Railway three-phase contact Une is suspended from two parallel catenary 
cables one meter apart. Flat suspender links are used. The catenary and contact 
wires are supported by long cantilevers made of two 6-inch I beams extending from 
heavy structural steel poles. Light gas pipe like that at the Simplon yards is not 
used. Hanger supports are clamped to the under flange of the cantilever I beams 
and grip a high-tension, horizontal, spool insulator which is cemented on a 1.5-inch 
iron pipe. The wire hangers are clamped to this insulator and to the contact line 
below. Each hanger has a pair of parallel-motion links, by which vertical flexi- 
bility is obtained. See photographs by Miller in Elec. World, Oct. 13, 1910, page 863. 

Syracuse, Lake Shore & Northern Railroad, a double-track direct-current road 
between Syracuse and Oswego, N. Y., uses catenary construction for direct current. 
Bridges span the track at 300-foot intervals. These consist of two "A" frames, 
erected in concrete foundations, and connected by a 30-foot truss. Angle braces 




Fig. 177. — Great Northern Railway Anchor Bridge for Dead end of Catenary Line. 
Trolley poles and trolley wires over each locomotive are 6 feet apart. 



connect the frames and trusses. Catenary construction consists of 7/16-inch galva- 
nized steel strand supported by a 2-piece 22,000 volt-porcelain insulator. The sag 
is 6.5 feet at 100° F., and 5.5 feet at 20° F. The trolley is a No. 4/0 cable, supported 
by hanger rods every 10 feet horizontally. Their length varies from 4.5 to 77.5 
inches. In 1909, additional catenary construction was erected and a 500,000-cm. 
copper feeder cable was used in place of the galvanized steel strand. 

Erie Railroad catenary construction on a 37-mile, 11,000-volt, single-phase 
contact line between Rochester and Mount Morris, New York, was erected in 1906. 

Steel side poles are used around extensive terminal yards. Chestnut poles are 
used on the main line. These vary in length from 35 to 55 feet, with an 8-inch top. 
The spacing is 120 feet. The pole brackets are of 3x3x108- inch ''T" bars. The 
bracket insulators are double petticoat porcelain, 5 inches high. The messenger 
cable is of 7/16-inch galvanized steel strand, tested for 2250 pounds. Hangers 
are spaced 10 feet apart and consist of 5/8-inch rods. Trolley wire is No. 3/0. 
Pneumatically operated pantographs are used. 



TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES 



453 



The conditions of service are severe, because the line work is badly maintained 
and because the steam locomotives of thru trains and all freight trains run on the 
track under the catenary. Trouble has been experienced in wind storms due to the 
wide swing of the trolley, also from chafing between the hangers and the messenger. 

New York, New Haven & Hartford catenary line construction is used on 22 miles 
of the 4-track New York division between Woodlawn and Stamford. It was erected 
in 1906 for 11, 000- volt single-phase service. 

Anchor bridges used on the New York Division of the New Haven road are located 
about every two miles on straight track. The posts are 61 feet 10 inches on centers. 
The tracks are on 13-foot centers. The base is built up of plates and angles which 
rest on concrete pedestals. The latter are 8 feet deep, 7 feet 2 inches wide at the 
base, and 4 feet 6 inches wide at the top. The lower cord of the truss is 24 feet and 



\ 




li* --•^: 



Fig. 178. — New Yokk, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. Overhead Construction. 



the trolley is 22 feet above the head of the rail. The bridges carry semiphores for 
each track, oil feeder circuit-breakers, trolley line circuit-breakers, lightning arresters, 
transformers, etc. See drawings in Elec. Ry. Journ., April 14, 1906. 

Four-track bridges are used between Woodlawn and New Rochelle and 6-track 
bridges between New Rochelle and Stamford. 

Steel bridges 300 feet apart carry a double-catenary suspension with two 9/16- 
inch, 7-strand galvanized steel cables, which have a 6-foot sag between bridges. 

Trolley wire of 4/0 copper is suspended from the two catenary cables,^ being placed 
at the lower apex of an equilateral triangle. This plan of suspension prevents side 
motion of the trolley wire when the pantograph is swayed by changes in track ahgn- 
ment, but it provides a very rigid and heavy construction for the high-speed train 
service. 

In operation, the pressure from the heavy pantograph which is used formed 
hard spots in the hne, and gathered up the slack in the copper in kinks at hangers. 
The copper wire wore rapidly at the suspension point, and fractured. In 1908 there 
was added a horizontal, grooved, steel contact wire supported by 9-ounce clips from 
the former solid copper contact wire, at mid-points between messenger hangers. 



454 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



The steel does not expand or kink like copper. The tension in this steel wire does 
not exceed the elastic limit of the steel at low temperatures. 

The maintenance expense per mile of line and per passenger train-mile is reported 
to be decidedly less for the catenary construction than for the third-rail construction 
used by the Hew Haven for one-third of its run. 

Harlem River catenary construcxion, for 62 miles of freight yards, embodies 
towers along each side of the tracks on about 250-foot centers, which towers are 
cross connected by 7/8-inch steel cable, which usually spans 6 to 9 tracks. Sus- 
penders are on 10-foot centers and support a porcelain- insulator, below which are 
suspenders for a 2/0 steel contact line. Two additional cross catenary spans connect 
the towers to steady the contact line. There is no catenary parallel to the contact 
hne. See drawings by Murray, A. I. E. E., April, 1911. 




Fig. 179. — New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad Overhead Construction. 



New York, West Chester and Boston 4-track catenary construction embodies 
steel bridges on 300-foot centers, 7/8-inch main messenger strand, from which 5/8- 
inch messenger strand is suspended at two points 50 feet from each tower. Hangers 
are placed on 10-foot centers and support a 4/0 copper wire and a 4/0 steel contact 
wire. The four messenger cables are cross-connected by 41-foot 3-inch, 5.5-pound 
jDer foot I-beams, at points 50 feet each side of each tower. 

Boston and Maine 4-track yard construction embodies two latticed steel towers 
at each side of the track, top connected by a 5/8-inch steel strand; a large sag; 
5/16-inch soft steel strand suspenders; and insulators in the suspenders, below 
which is a 4/0 copper wire and a 4/0 contact wire. Between the insulator u,nd the 
trolley a 5/8-inch horizontal cross-strand is connected to steady the 4 trolleys, 
the ends being connected to the two towers. The catenary, parallel to the trolley, 
usually extends from the insulator but on some of the work the catenary is omitted. 

Boston and Maine 2-track construction embodies 300-foot spans, 5/8-inch steel 



TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES 



455 



messenger strand, suspended from insulators clamped to the lower cord of the bridge 
truss, a 4/0 copper trolley wire and a 4/0 phono contact wire. 

Catenary construction in the tunnel embodies a catenary suspension wire, 
1/2-inch round rod suspended on 10-foot centers, at the bottom of which is a double 
hanger for two 4/0 contact wires. 

CATENARY CONSTRUCTION DATA. 



Name of railwaj' 



Type 

of 

support. 



New Haven: | 

1906 Bridge 



Bridge . . 
Arch. . . . 
Cable . . . 
Biidge . . 
Bridge . . 
Bracket . 
Bridge . . 
Bracket . 

Bracket . 
Bridge . . 



1908 

1910 

Harlem Yards 

N. Y. West. & Boston.. , 

Boston & Maine 

New Canaan Branch 

Grand Trunk 

Erie R. R 

Washington, Baltimore 

Annapolis 

Syracuse, Lake Shore 

Northern Bridge . . 

Rock Island Southern Bracket . 

Chicago, Lake Shore Bracket . 

& South Bend 

Peoria Ry. & Terminal Span. . . . 

Colorado & Southern Bracket . 

Galveston-Houston j Bracket . 

Seattle & Everett Bracket . 

Visalia Electric I Bracket . 

Seebach-Wettingen ] Bracket . 

Midland, England ! Bridge . . 

London, Brighton j Bridges . 

& South Coast 



Span 

in 
feet. 



300 
300 
300 
250 
300 
300 
150 
250 
120 

150 
300 
300 
150 
167 

100 
120 
150 
140 
120 
328 



180 



Messenger 

cable 
diameter. 



Hanger 
centers 
usid. 



2-9/16" 
2-9/16" 
4-U 
1-7/8" 

1-1 & r 
i-f" 

1-7/16" 

1-5/8" 

1-7/16" 

1-3/8" 

1-7/16" 

1-3/4" 

1-7/16" 

1-8/16" 



1-11/16' 
1-7/16" 
1-7/16" 
1-7/16" 
1-7/16" 



2-3/8" 



10' 



Trolley 
wire 
No. 



No. 

of 
tracks. 



Catenary 

sag 
normal. 



4/0 
4/0 
4/0 
2/0 
4/0 
4/0 
4/0 



3/0 

4/0 
4/0 
4/0 
4/0 
4/0 

3/0 
4/0 
4/0 
4/0 
4/0 
1/0 
3/0 
4/0 



4 

4 

6 

6 to 9 

4 

2 

1 

1 to 8 

1 

1 



6'-3" 

6'-3'' 

lO'-'J" 



8'-0" 
8'-0" 



6.5' @ 100° 
5.5'@20'' 



6tol0 



13'-0" 
I'-O" 



5.0' ©50"= 



Suspenders from single messenger cables usually vary in length from 6 to 20 inches per span. 

A copper contact wire is used in all the above cases, except for the 1908 New Haven work 
wherein a 4/0 steel contact wire was suspended from the copper wire. The New Haven, Seebach- 
Wettingen, Midland, Cologne-Bonn, Blankanese-Ohlsdorf, and London, Brighton & South Coast use a 
double catenary. Phono-electric contact wire is used on the Colorado & Soutljern, near Denver. 

Grand Trunk uses two 300,000 cm. trolleys in the tunnel, attached to the tunnel shell at in- 
tervals of 12 feet. 

Brackets are usually 2 1/4x2 l/4x5/16-inch, T-steel, 11 feet long. 

Trolley tension is usually 2000 pounds and messenger tension is 2200 pounds. 



THIRD -RAIL CONTACT LINES. 



American and European third-rail lines with length of track, number of motor 
cars, and location of third-rail were listed under ''History of Electric Traction." 

A conductor of large cross-section, one which was decidedly more 
substantial and which had more contact surface than the overhead 
copper trolley, is used to transmit and to deliver low-voltage currents. 



456 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

The general characteristics of the electric roads which use what is now 
called the "third-rail system" are: A positive third-rail contact line, 
track rails for the return circuit, low voltage, large currents, direct 
current, for local and important traffic, or long-distance and light traffic. 

Third rails were at first common track rails, but the rail section has 
been changed slightly in shape to suit the contact shoe, and the chemical 
composition of the steel has been purified to increase the conductivity, 
and modified to obtain a soft steel which wears slowly. The current 
carrying capacity and the resistance of a 100-pound steel rail, well 
bonded at joints, approximates that of a copper cable which has a cross- 
section of 1,000,000 circular mils. 

Overhead third -rail conductors were tried by the Baltimore & Ohio 
Railroad at Baltimore in 1896, but were soon abandoned. An unyield- 
ing rigid contact was found to produce chattering and sparking. 

The Buda-Pest Stadtbahn Aktien Gesellshaft, an underground road 
2.4 miles long, uses two overhead contact rails attached to the roof of the 
tunnel for positive and return current, the current being collected by 
means of a rather flexible pantograph. 

Overhead third-rail conductors are now used in freight switching 
yards, for terminals at Brooklyn, for the Steinway tunnel, etc. 

Third -rail voltage, between the third-rail and the track rails is com- 
monly 600 volts. This voltage does not produce objectionable leakage 
of electricity even when the third rail is covered temporarily with 
water. A man in normal, healthy condition will not be killed by the 
current which will pass from the third rail thru his body to the track 
rails or ground, from accidental contact. The danger from contact 
by workmen is much decreased, when 660 to 800 volts are used, if the 
third rail is protected by plank, terra-cotta, vitrified fibre, etc. 

The use of 1200 volts on third rails increases the leakage materially. 
Accidental contact with a 1200-volt, direct-current, third-rail line is 
most dangerous to life. In mountain roads, where the fall of heavy 
wet snow often exceeds 12 inches in a few hours, the ordinary snow 
plow could not be used, because the third rail would be in the way; 
and even if the third rail were 4 feet away from the track rail it would 
still be in the way, and it would not be tolerated by railroad operators. 

Insulation for third-rail supports at first was wood, boiled in par- 
affine. It wore and burned, and was discarded for reconstructed granite, 
which disintegrated. Porcelain has been adopted. The annual breakage 
from leakage, blows, rail movement, derailment, etc., is about 1 per 
cent. 

Supports for third rails rest on the extended ties so that the track- 
rail and third-rail alignment remains in the same plane. Insulator sup- 
porting distances vary. New York Central uses 11-foot centers; Long 



TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES 457 

Island, Pennsylvania, and Michigan Central, 10-foot; other roads, 9- 
to 8-foot. The third rail is placed between the double tracks, to 
standardize and in order that the off-side may be used for the unloading 
of materials. 

Disadvantages of the third rail for railroads are: 

1. Danger is increased for track employees, trespassers on right-of 
way, passengers at stations, trainmen at shunting yards, and teams at 
freight terminals. The third rail is located alternately on different 
sides of the track to suit cross-overs, curves, and physical restrictions; 
and as a result its location is uncertain and danger exists, as the rear 
brakeman or guard who is sent back on the run at night to protect 
the train soon finds. The coupling of cars and the crossing of yards in 
a hurry, are made more dangerous. Risk is necessary during the unload- 
ing of freight at sidings, the quick handling of materials, and the 
renewals of track, particularly at night. Wrecks become more 
dangerous. Derailment of a train may be followed by fires from electric 
power. Replacement of rails requires additional time for emergency 
repairs. 

2. Restrictions are made on clearance of foreign cars, damaged cars, 
snow plows, and wrecking cranes, particularly at tunnels and bridges. 
The distance from the third rail to the track rail should exceed 32 inches 
for car clearance, but this distance is seldom obtained. 

3. Complication occurs where complete control of electric power 
for trains is absolutely necessary, namely in freight yards and switching 
points, at turnouts and crossovers, and at ladder tracks or puzzle switches. 
Xo gaps can be jumped in freight service. There is enough of complica- 
tion, risk, danger, and hurry, without that which is added by a 600-volt 
third-rail at the side of the track. The overhead third-rail construction 
required at crossing switches, 22 feet out of the way, is so heavy that the 
supporting bridges increase the complication and danger because the 
heavy structures near the rails obstruct the view of the track and signals. 

4. Derail switches and dwarf switches are harder to install and to 
operate; and frequently they cannot be seen, on account of the obstruction 
of the view by the third rail. 

5. Leakage thru broken insulation increases the danger, particularly 
at night. Many insulators are broken by accidental falling of metal 
across the third rail. Block signal systems may thus be made tempo- 
rarily unserviceable. 

6. The use of 1200 to 1500 volts on third rails increases the danger 
from fire, danger during snow-plow operation, deaths by shock, leakage 
to signal circuits, burning of insulators, etc. 

7. Cost of third-rail construction in freight yards is three times as 
great as the cost of overhead high-voltage contact lines. 



458 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Retuiai conductors are the track rails and supplementary copper 
feeders which form the return circuit. The rail resistance loss is often 
negligible in high-voltage electric systems wherein a large part of the 
current ^'returns" to the power plant thru the earth. With low-voltage 
systems the loss usually exceeds 3 per cent, and in the latter case the rail 
j oints must be carefully connected by expensive rail bonds, except in three- 
wire neutral-track systems. 

Automatic block-signal circuits require the use of one of the rails of 
each single track. 

Fourth rails are used by London Electric Railways Company, to 
reduce the loss in voltage drop along the earthbed rail return, which, 
by Board of Trade Rules, to prevent electrolysis, must not exceed 7 volts 
and must be an insulated return. Fortenbaugh in a paper to A. I. E. E., 
Jan., 1908, states the objections to fourth rails. 

A treatise on return conductors would include the following subjects: 
Relative resistance of steel and copper; rail bonds, their section, length, 
location, life, and maintenance; impedance and resistance; losses in energy; 
damage by electrolysis, etc. See references which follow. 



COST OF CONSTRUCTION. 

Insulators for high-voltage transmission lines are made in several 
types as noted below. The factor of safety desired controls the cost. 
Factory prices average about as set forth in the following: 

12,000- to 22,000-volt, 3-shell, pin-type $ .40 to $ .50 

33,000- to 44,000- volt, 3-shell, pin-type 50 to .75 

44,000- to 55,000- volt, 3-shell, pin-type 75 to 1 . 00 

60,000- to 66,000-volt, 4-shell, pin-type 1 .00 to 1 . 10 

20,000- to 25,000- volt, 1-disk, susp.-type 75 to 1.25 

60,000- to 75,000- volt, 3-disk, susp.-type 2 . 25 to 3 . 00 

20,000- to 25,000-volt, 1-disk, cone-type 1 . 00 to 1 . 50 

Each malleable insulator pin, with separate ferrule, extra .35 

Each malleable suspender or clamp for disk, link, or cone, extra .25 

Cost of poles cannot be stated for a general case. Length, kind of 
material, freight, and foundations are the variables. 

Towers for steel transmission lines are generally made of angles and 
channels of standard section. The cost of fabricated steel, f.o.b cars at 
factory, is about 3 cents per pound, and 3 1/2 cents galvanized. 

Bridges of fabricated structural steel, used for supporting 2- to 6- 
track catenary construction, cost, f.o.b. cars at factory, about 3 cents 
per pound. 



TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES 



459 



COST OF THREE-PHASE HIGH-TENSION TRANSMISSION LINES. 

Comparative Data per Mile of Transmission. 



Type of construction. 



Voltage. 



Wooden poles. 



13,000 



Support, 50 poles or 12 towers 

Cross arm, 50 on poles; part of towers. . . . 

Telephone line material 

Ground wire material 

Insulator pins 

Insulators 

Three No. O wires, erected 

Installation of wires, guys, and insulators 
Total 



$350 

100 

50 

35 

35 

30 

1000 

200 

$2000 



60,000 



$650 

380 

50 

40 

130 

550 

1000 

200 

$3000 



Steel towers. 



60,000 



$1800 



75 

100 



155 

1000 

270 

g3400 



Towers for a 6-wire transmission line cost about $2400. 

Estimate omits cost of right-of-way, 15 per cent, for contractor's profit, 5 per 
cent, for engineering and 5 per cent, for contingencies. Change for actual size of 
wire to be used. 



COST OF CATENARY CONTACT LINE. 



Name of railway. 



Voltage 

used 

one-phase. 



Heaviest interurban 11,000 

Light interurban 11,000 

Steam R. R. electrification. . . 11,000 

Steam R. R. electrification . . 11,000 

New York, New Haven & 11,000 

Hartford. Main line. 

New York. New Haven & 11,000 

Hartford. Harlem Yards. 

Hamburg-Altoona 6,000 

Seebach-Wettingen 12,000 

Rotterdam-Hague-Scheven- 10,000 

ingen. 

Three-phase 6,000 

Two 4/0 wires. No catenary. 6,000 



Brackets, 
bridges 
or poles. 



Bracket. 
Bracket. 
Span. . . 
Bridge . . 



Bridge 



Bridge . 



Tower and cable . 



Bridge 

Wooden pole . . . 
Latticed pole 
and light bridge 

Bracket 

Span 



No. 

of 

tracks. 



1-2 

1 
1 
2 



Yards. 
6 to 9 

2 

1 

2 



Span 

in 
feet. 



150 
150 
150 
300 

.300 

300 

250 

157 
164 
157 

150 



Cost per 
single-track 
mile. 



$2150 
1800 
2300 
3000 to 
6000 
7000 to 

10000 

17000 

with foundations 

1800 

5000 
4100 
5450 

5600 
8000 



460 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



COST OF CATENARY CONTACT LINES. 

Estimate per mile of Double Track. Comparative. 

Poles, span cable hangers, without catenary $1100 

Poles, brackets, messenger suspenders, catenary 1300 

Bridges, messenger, suspenders, catenary 1700 

Add for insulators and miscellaneous 250 

Add for two 4/0 copper trolleys 2000 

Add for labor and tools 1200 to 1450 

Total cost per double-track mile |4800 to $5400 



COST OF THIRD-RAIL LINES PER MILE. 





Pounds 
per yard. 


Under- or over- 
running. 


Cost of 


complete 


work. 


Name of railway. 


Material. 


Labor. 


Total. 


Michigan United Ry 

Estimate by Armstrong . . . 
California Traction, 1200- 

volt. 
Boston & Eastern 


60 
70 
40 

90 

70 

100 


Over-running 






$3000 


$3575 
2748 


920 
552 


4475 


Under-running 
Protected, u -r. 


3300 
4700 


Heavy interurban 

Railroad electrification 


Protected, o.-r. 






4000 


Protected, o.-r. 






6000 













Steel rails, 70 pounds at $35 per 2240-pound ton cost $1950 per mile. 

Michigan United Railway Company reports that its third-rail installation cost about the same 
as a 4/0 trolley with one 500,000 cm. feeder on 35-foot poles; and that the third rail has 50 per 
cent, greater capacity. A 60-pound, low-carbon Carnegie rail costing $35 per ton, had a capacity 
of 1,080,000 cm. and a relative conductivity of 6.83. It was installed on vitrified clay block 
insulators for a total cost of $3000 per mile. 

Cost of maintenance of 142 miles of third-rail contact line on the West Jersey 
and Seashore Railroad for 1910 was $10,864 or $77 per year per mile. 



LITERATURE. 



References on Power Distribution. 



Rosenthal: "Calculations of Transmission Lines," McGraw, 1909. 

Berg: "Electrical Energy, its Generation, Transmission, Utilization," McGraw, 1908. 

Del Mar: "Electric Power Conductors," Van Nostrand, 1907. 

Dawson: "Electric Traction for Railways," Chapter XX, Van Nostrand, 1909. 

A. I. E. E.: "Commitee Report on High-tension Transmission," McGraw, 1907. 

Young: One-phase Power Transmission, A. I. E. E., June, 1907. 

Ricker: Substation Location, A. I. E. E., Dec, 1905. 

Werner: Spacing of Substations and Tiansformers, A. I. E. E., July, 1908. 



TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES 461 

Roberts: Transmissions for Elec. Rys. in Sparsely Settled Communities, S. R. J., 

Oct. 20, 1906. 
Reports on Power Transmission, A. I. E. E. Committee, 1903 to 1911. 
Report on Overhead Line Construction, Amer. Elec. Ry. Assoc, E. R. J., June 3, 1911, 

p. 964. 
Reports on Power Distribution, A. S. & I. Ry., Eng. Assoc. Committees, 1908-1909. 
Data on Trolley Lines and Costs, E. T. W., Oct. 16, 1909. 
Sprague: Power Transmission by Direct Current, E. W., Dec. 30, 1905. 

\ 

References on Copper and Aluminum Wire. 

Perrine: Aluminum Wire, A. I. E. E., May, 1900. 

Mershon: Drop in Alternating-current Lines, Amer. Elec, June, 1897; A. I. E. E., 

Dec, 1904; June, 1907. 
Specifications: Hard-drawn Wire Copper, Amer. Soc for Testing Materials; E. R. J., 

July 31, 1909; Nov. 5, 1910, p. 943; Gen. Elec. Review, Aug., 1909. 
Fisher: Data on Conductors and Underground Cables, A. I. E. E., June, 1905. 
W^oods: Efficiency of Trolley Wire, E. R. J., Jan. 30, 1909. 
Franklin: Copper versus Aluminum, G. E. Review, June, 1909. 

References on Electrical Calculations. 

Baum: Kelvin's Law: E. W., May 25, 1907. 

Sayers: Kelvin's Law, S. R. J., June 16, 1900, page 586. 

Scott: Evolution of High- voltage Transmission, Elec. Rev., Jan. 10, 1903. High- 
voltage Power Transmission, A. I. E. E., June, 1898; E. W., Nov. 26, 1898; 
Transmission Circuits, Elec. Journal, Dec, 1905; Feb. and May, 1906. 

Herdt: Size of Conductors in Transmission Lines, E. W., Jan. 2, 1909. 

Mershon: Calculations of Lines, Elec Journal, March, 1907. 

Copley: Constants of Single-phase Railway Circuits, Elec. Journal, Nov., 1908; 
Impedance of Railway Circuits, A. I. E. E., July, 1908, p. 1171. 

Pender: Solution of Alternating-current Problems, A. I. E. E., July, 1908, p. 1397; 
E. W., Jan. 12, and Sept. 28, 1907; Transmission Line Formulas, E. W., July 8, 
1909; June 10, 1909. 

Franklin: Transmission Line Calculations, G. E. Review, 1909-10. 

Miller: Transmission Line Constants, G. E. Review, 1909-10. 

Huldschiner: Voltage Drop with one- and three-phase Railways, Elek. Zeit- 
schrift., Dec. 1, 1910. 

Murray: Constants of Single-phase Ry. Circuits, A. I. E. E., April, 1911. 

References on Transmission Lines. 

Specifications for Electric Transmission Lines, E. R. J., Oct. 13, 1910, p. 792. 

Bowie: Long Span Pole Lines, E. W., Aug. 25, Sept. 29, Nov. 17, 1906. 

Glaubitz: Sags and Tensions in Transmission Lines, E. W., March 25, 1909. 

Jenks: Repairs on Live Transmission Lines, E. W., Aug. 5, 1909. 

Neall: Towers for Transmission Line, E. W., Aug. 5, 1909. 

Neall: Transmission Line Engineering, E. W., July 1, 1909. 

Ryan: Transmission Line, A Mechanical Structure, E. W., Feb. 29, 1908. 

Schock: Timber Preservation, E. R. J., May 16, 1908. 

Winchester: Tests on Wooden Poles, E. W., March 16, 1911, p. 667. 

Scholes: Design of Transmission Line Structures, A. I. E. E., June, 1907; June, 1908^ 



462 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Nachod: Temperature Effects on Spans, E. W., Dec. 9, 1905; Aug. 31, 1907, p. 403; j 
June 27, 1910, p. 220. ' 

Kohlin: Most Economical Span, Elec. Review, Sept. 14 and 21 and Dec. 28, 1906. 
Fowle: Sleet Loads and Wind Velocities, E. W., Oct., 27, 1910. 

References on Steel Towers — Descriptive. 

New York Central and Hudson River R. R. : E. W., Oct. 27, 1906, p. 800. 

Pennsylvania R. R.: E. R. J., June 10, 1911, p. 1014. 

Connecticut River Power Co.: E. W., Sept. 9, 1909, p. 606. 

Schenectady Power Co.: Elec. Review, March 27, 1909, G. E. Review, May, 1909. . 

Niagara, Lockport and Ontario Power Co.: E. W., April 29, 1905; April 14, July 21, 1 

1906; May 2, 1908; June 6, 1908; Mershon, A. I. E. E., June, 1907; S. R. J., ^ 

July 14, 1906; Oct. 12, 1907. 
Canadian Niagara Power Co.: Buck, A. I. E. E., July, 1907. 
Hydroelectric Commission of Ontario: 
McCall Ferry Power Co.: E. W., Oct. 20, 1910. 

Southern Power Co., N. C: 100,000-volt, E. W., May 23, 1907; G. E. Review, Jan., 

1910; E. W., 1910, p. 741; Elec. Journal, April, 1911; A. I. E. E., June, 1911. 

Grand Rapids-Muskegon : 72,000- volt Lines on Wooden Poles, E. W., Sept. 14, 1907; 

100,000-volt Lines on Steel Towers, E. W., Nov. 2, 1907; Feb. 4, 1909; Sept. 16, 

1909; G. E. Review, 1909, p. 86. 
Commonwealth Power Co., Michigan: E. W., July 14, 1910, p. 99. 
Southern Wisconsin Power Co., and Milwaukee Elec. Ry. & Lt. Co., E. R. J., Sept. 

26, 1908; E. W., Oct. 3, 1908; E. W., Sept. 23, 1909, p. 707; Drawings in Elec. 

Review, Aug. 28, 1909; E. W., 1910. 
St. Croix Falls-Minneapolis, E. W., Sept. 7, 1907; Dec. 15, 1910, p. 1419. 
La Crosse Water Power Co.: E. W., 1910, pp. 783, 803. 
Telluride Power Co.: E. W., July 15, 1909, p. 147. 

Central Colorado Power Co.: E. W., Jan. 27, 1910, p. 217; June 30, 1910. 
Northern Colorado Power Co. : Journal of Electricity, Aug., 1910. 
Madison River Power Co., Montana: E. W., Dec. 23, 1909. 
Great Falls (Montana) Power Co.: Hibgen, A. I. E. E., June, 1911. 
Great Western Power Co.: E. W., Sept. 16, 1909; Jollyman, A. I. E. E., June, 1911. 
Sierra & San Francisco (Stanislaus) : Journal of Elec, Sept. 4, 1909. 
California Gas & Elec. Corp. : Baum, A. I. E. E., June 28, 1907. 
Los Angeles: E. W., Oct. 28, 1909; E. W., Aug. 31, 1907. 
Guanajuanto and Necaxa: E. W., Aug. 20, 1904; Oct. 28, 1905, p. 729. 

References on Wooden Pole Lines — Descriptive. 

Indiana Interurban Practice: S. R. J., June 18, 1904. 

Bear River, Utah: E. W., Juae 25, 1904. 

Seattle-Tacoma Power Co.: Crawford to A. I. E. E., April, 1911. 

References on Insulators. 

Dawson: '^Electric Traction for Railway," page 569. 
Harvey: Porcelain Manufacture, Elec. Journal, June and Oct., 1907. 
Hewlett: General Electric Link Insulators, A. I. E. E., June, 1907. 
Weicker: Study of Suspension Type Insulators, Elek. Zeit., July 8, 1909. 
Skinner: Specifications and Tests for Insulators, A. I. E. E., June, 1908. 
Denneen: Specifications for Insulators, S. R. J., May 30, 1908. 



TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES 463 

Tests on Trolley, Line Insulators: A. S. & I. Ry. Eng. Assoc; E. R. J., Oct. 9, 1909. 
Merriam: Insulator data, G. E. Review, Aug., 1907, Nov., 1908, March, 1909. 
Austin: Design and Efficiency, E. R. J., Sept. 24, 1910, p. 465; A. I. E. E., June, 1911. 

References on Catenary Construction. 

Mailloux: Construction in Europe, S. R. J., Apr. 8, 1905; A. I. E. E., March, 1905. 
Varney: Line Construction for High- voltage Railways, A. I. E. E., March, 1905. 
Mayer: Catenary Construction, A. S. C. E., Feb. and Nov., 1906; S. R. J., Dec. 1, 

1906, p. 1062. 
Lyford: Catenary Trolley Construction, A. S. C. E., Oct., 1908. 
Cravens: Catenary Trolley Line Construction, Elec. Review, Oct. 2, 1909. 
Pender: Relation between Deflection, Tension, and Temperature in Wire Spans, E. 

W., Jan. 12, 1907; Sept. 8, 1907; July 8, 1909. 
Nicholl: Single-phase Catenary Construction and Installation, S. R. J., Oct. 5, 1907. 
Smith, W. N.: Electric Ry. Catenary Construction, A. I. E. E., May, 1910. 
Coombs: Overhead Construction for High-tension Electric Traction or Transmission, 

A. S. C. E., Feb. 1908; S. R. J., Jan. 4, 1908; A. I. E. E., May 27, 1910, p. 1563. 
Shelton: Catenary Construction of Trolley Wire for Operating Electric Railways, 

E. T. W., Aug. 15, 1908. 
Hickson: Design of Catenary Lines, A. I. E. E., May 27, 1910. 
Report on Standardization, A. S. & I. Ry. Engr. Assoc, S. R. J., Oct. 14, 1908. 
Eveleth: Relative Advantages, Third-rail and Catenary, S. R. J., May 11, 1907. 
Reports of High-tension Transmission Committee, A. I. E. E., June, 1904 to 1910. 
Thomas: Sag Calculations for Suspended Wires, A. I. E. E., June, 1911. 
Robertson: Solution of Problems in Sags and Spans, A. I. E. E., June, 1911. 
General Electric: S. R. J., Oct. 26, 1907, p. 858; G. E. Review, Nov., 1910. 
Westinghouse: Varney, A. I. E. E., March 24, 1905; S. R. J., April 1, 1905. 
A. E. G.: Standards adopted for European Work, E. R. J., March 5, 1910. 

References on Catenary Construction — Descriptive. 

Long Island Railroad, Suburban Lines, E. R. J., Nov. 13, 1909. 

Pennsylvania Railroad, Experimental Contact Lines, E. R. J., Dec. 12, 1908. 

New York, New Haven & Hartford: Murray to A. I. E. E., Jan. 1907; Jan. and 

Dec, 1908; April, 1911; S. R. J., April 7 and 14, 1906; March 30, 1907; Dec. 19, 

1908. 

McHenry: S. R. J., Aug. 17 and 24, 1907. 

New Canaan Branch: E. R. J., May 15, 1909. 

Stamford-New Haven and New Rochelle extensions, E. R. J., April 16, 1910. 

Standard adopted for 600- volt branch lines, E. R. J., April 3, 1909; Feb. 26, 1910. 
Boston and Maine, E. R. T., July 1, 1911. 
Syracuse, Lake Shore & Northern, E. R. J., Oct. 10, 1908. 
Erie R. R., E. R. J., Oct. 12, 1907, p. 650. 

Denver & Interurban, Lyford, A. S. C. E., Aug., 1909; E. R. J., Sept. 5, 1908. 
Chicago, Lake Shore & South Bend, E. R. J., April 10, 1909. 
lUinois Traction, E. T. W., March 13, 1909. 
Visalia Electric Ry., S. R. J., Dec. 7, 1907. 
London, Brighton & South Coast, A. I. E. E., Dec, 1908, p. 1700; B. I. C. E., March 

14, 1911. 
Midland Railway, England: E. R. J., July 4, 1908. 
Blankanese-Ohlsdorf, E. R. J., April 6, 1907. 



464 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Rotterdam-Hague-Scheveningen, Ry. Age Gazette, July 8, 1910. 

Seebach-Wettingen, E. R. J., Nov. 6, 1909. 

Standardization: Amer. Elec. Ry. Eng. Assoc, S. R. J., Oct. 15, 1908, p. 1088. 

References on Third Rail. 

Capp: Data on Conductivity, S. R. J., Oct. 24, 1903. 

Fortenbaugh : Conductor Rail Measurements, A. I. E. E., July, 1908, p. 1215. 

Langdon: Fourth Rails for English Roads, B. I. C. E., June, 1903. 

Report: A. S. &. I. Ry. Engr. Assoc, E. R. J., Oct. 15, 1908, p. 1088. 

Eveleth: Relative Advantages and Cost, Third Rail vs. Catenary, S. R. J., May 11, 

1907. 
Farnham: Protected Third Rail, S. R. J., Jan. 6, 1906. 
Sprague: Electric Trunk Line Operation, A. I. E. E., May, 1907. 
Baltimore & Ohio R. R., S. R. J., March 14, 1903; July 30, 1904. 
New York Central R. R., Sprague, A. I. E. E., May 21, 1907, p. 726; S. R. J., Nov. 9, 

1907, p. 954; Sept. 2, 1905; West Shore, June 8, 1907, p. 1002. 
Pennsylvania Railroad, Gibbs, E. R. J., June 3, 1911, p. 959. 
Philadelphia & Wesern Drawings of Farnham third rail, S. R. J., June 15, 1907. 
Michigan United Ry., E. T. W., Dec 11, 1909. 
Central California Traction Co., 1200-volt, E. R. J., Oct. 2, 1909. 
Wilkes-Barre & Hazelton, S. R. J., March 7, 1903. 
Underground Electric Rys., London, A. I. E. E., July, 1908, p. 1215. 

References on Current Collection at High Voltages. 

Somach: Current Collecting for Heavy Rys., S. R. J., April 23, 1904, 

Kenyon: High-tension Current Collection, E. R. J., Jan. 9, 1909. 

G. E. Data: Recent Improvements in Catenary Line Construction and Methods of 

Installation, S. R. J., Oct. 26, 1907, p. 858. 
Nachod: Design of Pantograph Trolleys, E. W., June 10, 1905, p. 1078. 
Finzi: Pantograph Collectors, S. R. J., Aug. 11, 1906, p. 228. 
Siemens: Bow Collectors, The Electrician, June 26, 1908. 
Swedish State, E. R. J., Jan. 9, 1909, p. 59. ^^ 

Referencies on Lightning Protection. 

Thomas: Static Strains in High-tension Circuits and the Protection of Apparatus, 

A. I. E. E., Feb., 1905; Present Status of Protection, E. W., June 13, 1908, 
Jackson: Investigation of Lightning Protective Apparatus, A. I. E. E., Dec. 28, 1906. 
Creighton: Lightning Protection, E. R. J., Oct. 14, 1908, p. 997; March 27, 1909. 

References on Telephone and Telegraph Disturbances. 

Taylor: General Electric Review, Aug., 1907; A. I. E. E., Oct., 1909. 
Corey: Railway Signals, Gen. Elec. Review, July, 1907. 
Proceedings of Assoc R. R. Tel. Sup'ts., June 19, 1907. 



TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES 465 



This page is reserved for additional references and notes on transmission 
ind contact lines. 



30 



CHAPTER XIII. 

STEAM, GAS, AND WATER POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY 

TRAIN SERVICE. 

Outline. 

Distinguishing Features : 

Capacity, economy of operation, relatively constant load, relatively small 
amount of equipment. 

Load Factor of Railway Loads : 

Train movements per day, hours of service per day, acceleration rates used, 
kind of service, length of division, equalization of loads, variety of service, 
electric system used. 

Steam Power Plants : 

Location, water supply, coal supply, coal handling, furnace, grate surface, 
heating surface, water-tube boilers, steam turbines, condensers, heat insulation, 
supervision, number of plants, reliability of service, cost of all equipment, 
cost of power per kw-hr., installations for railways. 

Gas Power Plants : 

Reasons for limited use, conditions which favor development, present status, 
cost of equipment, cost of operation, installations for railways. 

Water Power Plants : 

Water supply and load, water power available, reliability, cost of equipment, 
cost of power per kw-hr., installations for railways. 

Technical Descriptions of Installations: j 

New York, New Haven & Hartford; New York Central; Interboro Rapid 
Transit ; Hudson & Manhattan ; Long Island-Pennsylvania ; West Jersey & Sea- 
shore; Commonwealth Edison; Twin City Rapid Transit; Milwaukee Northern; 
Great Northern Railway, Cascade Tunnel; London Electric Railways. 

Literature. 



466 



CHAPTER XIII. 

POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE. 

DISTINGUISHING FEATURES. 

Power plants which supply energy for electric railway train service 
generally have at least four distinguishing features or characteristics: 

The capacity of one central power plant is used to provide energy 
for propelling many electric trains or is substituted for that of many 
steam locomotives. The capacity of the electric power plant is relatively 
un imited so far as any train is concerned, and the whole power plant 
stands behind the individual electric train. The maximum output 
from the central plant is large, compared with the capacity of a steam 
locomotive, a power plant on wheels. Electrical machinery has a 
limited capacity, but generally this is fixed by the safe heating of the 
mica or other insulation around copper conductors, and heavy over- 
loads can be carried for long periods with safety. The maximum out- 
put of a steam locomotive is limited by its boiler and cylinders. 

Economy in operation is guaranteed because the number of prime 
movers at the power plaDt which are in service at any one time can be 
so varied that each will operate within its most economical range of 
load. Operation on a large scale reduces the items of labor, of mainte- 
nance, and of fixed charges per unit output. These are the essentials for 
economy of power production. 

Relatively constant loads exist at the central plant while the power 
service furnished by the single locomotive or car varies continually 
over a wide range. ''The load factor or average load of trunk-line 
railways will be from 60 to 80 per cent, of the maximum load." Stillwell. 
The larger the electric zone and the greater the number of the trains in 
service, the more constant the plant load becomes, because the loads of 
the different trains are distributed, giving a low value for the maximum, 
and further, the peaks for acceleration do not occur simultaneously, and 
all of the trains are not moving all of the time. 

Relatively small amounts of equipment are necessary, for the above 
reasons. The power plant equipment has from 30 to 50 per cent, of the 
total or maximum capacity of the steam or electric motors used to haul 
the trains. The relation of the rated capacity of the electric power plant 
to the capacity of the motors in the trains is shown in the table which 
follows. 

467 



468 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



RELATIVE EQUIPMENT OF POWER PLANT AND RAILWAY MOTORS. 
Data are for 1910. 1 kw. - 1.34 h.p. 



Name of railway company. 



Capacity 
of power 
plant. 24- 
hr. h. p. 



Capacity 
locomo- 
tives. 
1-hr. h. p. 



Capacity 


Capacity 


motor- 


motors. 


cars. 


total 


l-hr. h. p. 


h.p. 





6,300 


3,900 


46,380 


60,000 


163,400 


64,400 


64,400 


96,750 1 
54,400 / 


233,650 


44,640 


44,640 


4,800 


4,800 


2,400 


2,400 





11,600 





4,320 





6,600 


174,000 


174,400 


5,000 


5,000 


2,800 


10,000 



Ratio of h.p., 

power plant 

to railway 

motors. 



Boston and Maine 

New York, New Haven & Hartford: 

New York Division 

New York Central: 

Hudson and Harlem Divisions. 

Hudson & Manhattan 

Pennsylvania R. R.: 

Pennsylvania Tunnel and Terminal. 

Long Island R. R 

West Jersey & Seashore 

Baltimore & Annapolis 

Erie R. R., Rochester Division 

Baltimore & Ohio 

Grand Trunk, Sarnia Tunnel 

Michigan Central, Detroit Tunnel. . . 
Twin City Rapid Transit, 

Minneapolis-St. Paul 

Colorado & Southern: 

Denver & Interurban Division . . . . 
Valtellina Ry., Italy 



5,333 

21,500 

53,333 
24,000 

44,000 

10,666 
2,400 
3,000 
4,000 
3,333 
2,666 

67,000 

2,680 
7,400 



6,300 

42,480 

103,400 


82,500 









11,600 

4,320 

6,600 

400 


7,200 



.85 
.46 



.33 
.37 



.19 

.24 
.50 
1.25 
.35 
.81 
.41 

.39 

.54 
.74 



A study of this statistical table should include the following: 
Reserve equipment in power plant, and in locomotives and motor 
cars; method of rating railway motors; relation of kw. to kv-a. output 
of power plant; use of storage batteries to equalize the loads; use of steam 
power as a reserve for water power; rapidly changing and temporary 
conditions; large initial power plant investment for considerable increase 
in the train service; size of installation; number of locomotives in service. 
A further study of the reasons for the relative amounts of equipment 
would include the ratio of average and maximum power plant loads to 
the capacity of the railway motor and power plant equipment in service. 
For example, on the New Haven road, in October, 1909; the railway 
power plant capacity at Cos Cob was 17,100 kw., the peak load was about 
11,000 kw., and 1000 kw. were used for lighting, pumping, and other 
work, leaving a 10,000-kw. load for 20, of 38, electric locomotives which 
were in service in the zone fed by the Cos Cob power plant; thus the 
average power plant load for each 1000-h. p. passenger locomotive 
approximated 500 kilowatts. 

LOAD FACTOR OF RAILWAY LOADS. 

The load factor, or the ratio of the average load to the maximum 
load, as determined daily or monthly by watt-hour meters, is rela- 
tively high at an electric railway power plant; and as a result, the equip- 



POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 469 



merit required is a minimum for a given amount of energy delivered. 
(The load factor for a period of 5 minutes differs from the load factor 
for 1 hour, 1 day, or 1 year; and for accuracy the period of time should 
be specified. Ordinarily the time limit is for a period of 1 hour, because 
watt-hour meters at central power plants are read hourly.) The matter 
of power factor is of importance because it has a direct bearing upon the 
economy of power service. 

The load factor of a power plant depends upon the number of train 
movements per day; number of hours of service per day; acceleration 
rates; kind of service furnished; length of the electric division; equal- 
ization of the load with other power plants; variety of service or loads; 
electric system used for electrification, etc. 

The number of trains is of first importance. There is no advantage 
to be gained by replacing steam locomotives with electric locomotives 
when there are on'y a few train movements per day. In such cases^ the 
interest on the increased cost of the power plant, and the transmission 
line, cannot be compensated in any measure by the physical advantages 
of electric traction and the saving to be made in fuel; but with 6 freight 
trains, 6 passenger trains on thru service, 6 passenger trains in local 
service, and 8 switchers, the load factor is raised, and physical and finan- 
cial advantages are gained. 

Total number of hours of service per day affects the load factor. 
In 24-hour electric railway train service the load factor easily exceeds 50 
per cent., which is about the maximum obtained in 18-hour street railway 
service. Electric lighting plants have the greater part of their load 
within a period of 4 hours and the load factor is about 25 per cent. 

Acceleration rates used in different kinds of seryice affect the load 
factor, but only to a small extent. In railway practice the accelerating 
rate varies universally as the train weight, and the tractive effort required 
in accelerating heavy trains is not materially different from that of lighter 
trains, as is shown in the following table. 

TRACTIVE EFFORT FOR DIFFERENT RAILWAY SERVICES. 



Kind of train service. 


Accelerating 

rate in 
m. p. h. p. s. 


Tons 

per 

train. 


Tractive 
ejffort 
acceleration. 


Tractive 

effort at 

full speed. 


Rapid transit 

Short train 


1.25 
.70 
.40 
.25 
.10 
.05 


160 
250 
400 
600 
1500 
2800 


20,000 
17,500 
16,000 
15,000 
15,000 
14,000 


2,800 
3,500 


Local passenger 

Thru passenger 


4,400 

6,000 

10,000 

16,800 


Way freight . . 


Thru freight 



470 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Tractive effort (acceleration rate X 100) X m. p. h./375 = h. p. 

The greater number of trains in rapid transit and suburban service 
compensate for the higher tractive effort per train during acceleration. 

Kind of service affects the load factor. For example, the load fac- 
tor of a passenger terminal of a railroad is low. The passenger service 
is hard to handle with economy because trains are bunched during the 
morning and evening, and because the total hours of heavy service are 
18, rather than 24, per day. Freight service, however, is well distributed 
during the night and day. Trains leave early in the morning, between 
6 and 7 a. m., and usually arrive at their destination between 4 and 
5 p. M., or before the heaviest passenger traffic starts. If a single- 
track line is used, or if the traffic is heavy, the train dispatchers keep 
the line uniformly busy, during the 24 hours. With a small change in 
the schedule, the peak load may sometimes be radically decreased with- 
out changing the value of the service rendered. 

Length of the division affects the load factor. The load factor of the 
power plant which furnishes service for a short division or for a short 
terminal is generally low, even with a large number of trains. It might 
be 30 per cent, on a 10-mile terminal division, while if two adjacent 
divisions were added, forming a total of 100 miles, and if the freight ser- 
vice were included, the load factor might be 80 per cent. Obviously 
it is about as easy to handle a 50-mile division as to handle a 5-mile 
tunnel. 

When a large central power plant supplies energy to 40 electric 
trains on long freight and passenger runs, day and night, the condi- 
tions change and the business is handled with economy. 

New Haven Railroad Company's power plant at Cos Cob has a poor 
load factor and bad fluctuations in load. About 20 electric locomotives 
haul heavy passenger trains on 20 miles of 11,000-volt road. (A short 
trolley road with 20 cars has an equally poor load factor.) When the 
electric zone reaches to New Haven, and the freight and switching 
work is included, the percentage of the fluctuations will decrease; the 
load will extend over more hours of the day, and it will not be necessary 
to run a 4000-h. p. turbo-alternator from midnight to morning, prac- 
tically without load. 

Many railroads have now spent $1,000,000 at tunnels for the elec- 
trification of about 6 miles of route, using about 6 locomotives, to haul 
all freight and passenger trains thru a long tunnel and over connect- 
ing grades, to gain in capacity and to avoid dangerous operation. 
The net saving in operating expenses, about $100 per day, cannot 
pay one-third of the interest and depreciation on the capital invested. 
When a second million dollars has been spent, for the electrification of 
an adjacent division and terminal yards, economy will be expected, 



POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 471 

because the load factor of the entire plant will be radically increased, 
and because the investment will be utilized during more of the time. 

Grand Trunk Railway has a serviceable, reliable, and expensive 
power plant at Port Huron. A 1000-ton freight train is accelerated, then 
there is a short run on the level, followed by coasting and by a run up 
a 2 per cent, grade. The number of trains in operation at one time, 
with six 66-ton locomotive units, is not more than two. Economy 
cannot be expected until 10 to 20 passenger, freight, and switching 
trains are in service at one time to equalize the boiler and turbine loads. 
Difficulties and handicaps exist, as with the 6-mile, 6-car street railway, 
in 1890. The relative results of electric train operation are, however, 
decidedly better than with steam locomotives; but the mileage of the 
electric division must be increased for real economy. 

Equalization of the loads of two or more power plants which feed a 
150-mile or a longer division increases the load factor, if the two plants are 
connected thru feeders or even thru the contact line, because the peak 
loads or fluctuations of the load on the two power plants will be equal- 
ized or divided among the power plants to the East and to the West, 
even tho the}'- are 100 miles apart. Incidentally this interconnection 
increases the reliability and also the ability to handle peak-load service 
under the conditions which arise after a storm has damaged tracks, 
bridges, equipment, and transmission lines. 

Storage batteries may be used to equalize the load. Plans have been 
developed to pump water to heights during light-load periods and to 
release it thru Pelton water wheels during the heavy-load periods. Other 
plans involve a fly wheel connected to a large motor to store up energy and 
return it on demand to carry a temporary peak load. Elec. World, 
Feb. 23, 1911, p. 487; Tatum: A. I. E.E., April 12, 1911. 

On the Italian State Railway's Mont Cenis three-phase road, between Modana 
and Turin, water power is furnished thru the following frequency changer outfit. 
One 2200-kv-a., 50-cycle, 48, 500/ 7000- volt, three-phase transformer; one 2500-h. p., 
7000- volt, 50-cycle induction motor; a 44-ton fly-wheel; a 2000-kv-a., 500-r. p. m., 
3500- volt, 16 2/3-cycle, three-phase generator; and one three-phase commutator 
motor for regulating the speed of an asynchronous motor between 400 r. p. m., and 
500 r. p. m. The fly wheel stores kinetic energy to such an extent that when the 
speed drops from 500 r. p. m. to 400 r. p. m., about 1000 h. p. can be given up 
for 1 minute to care for locomotive load fluctuations. The three-phase commutator 
motor permits the asynchronous motor, with which it is connected in cascade, to 
approximate unit load factor. 

Variety of service or of loads is an advantage. The load factor is 
increased by handling electric service for lighting, street railways, shops, 
or city water pumping, coal handling at docks, and hoisting at wharves, 
bridges, and elevators located along the line. It is frequently o})served, 
in electric railway train diagrams, that there is a sag in the total load 



472 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

about 6 p. M. daily; for the freight trains are in, the switchers are rest- 
ing, and for an hour or so some of the heavy trains are not started. 
This fact can be used to advantage because the peak loads of street and 
suburban railways, and the electric lighting loads occur at this time. 
The minimum boiler capacity is thus required for the combined peaks 
and, with the excellent load factor, economical service can be provided. 

The electric system used affects the load factor. For example, when 
using the three-phase or single-phase system for regeneration of energy 
on mountainous grades, a train going down the grade hauls a train up the 
grade, and thus decreases the peak loads. When a sudden load comes 
on the power plant, a sluggishly designed governor on the prime mover 
causes it to slow down, and the three-phase locomotive assists the power 
plant temporarily by a kind of fly-wheel action. The instant the gener- 
ators are slowed down by any sudden load, all the motors on the line are 
operated temporarily by the inertia of their railway trains, and the power 
taken from the line is temporarily decreased. 

Waterman states that on the three-phase Valtellina road in Italy, 
with 5 or 6 light trains running simultaneously, the ratio of peak to 
average load is 1.75, or that the load factor is 57 per cent. Studies of 
the Valtellina power plant economies indicate that on account of the 
improved load factor the three-phase system can be operated with a 
smaller power plant capacity. In real railroading, this gain by fly-wheel 
action would be much more than overbalanced by the great overloads 
that occur when the speed of three-phase motors is maintained, with the 
drawbar pull, on the up-grade work in rough rolling country. 

Direct-current and single-phase systems produce the highest power- 
plant load factor. The product of speed and torque is such that the power 
is nearly constant. Acceleration, and up-grade runs, which require high 
torque are compensated by lower speeds. The speed of the series motor 
and the power developed depend on the voltage applied to the motor. 

Three-phase systems affect the load factor adversely. In the poly- 
phase motor the speed remains constant with increase of torque required 
on the up-grade; the power rises, and the relation of average to maximum 
load becomes lower, which is bad for the economical production of power. 
The load varies over wide limits. On a 2.2 per cent, grade it is 5 times 
as high as on the level. In accelerating, the power required is 20 per cent, 
greater than in running at full load, even when slip-ring motors are used, 
and the rate of acceleration is low. Great Northern Railway one-speed 
locomotives take full rated power from the instant of starting. 

The load factor of a power plant affects the economy in operation, fuel, 
labor, maintenance, and investment. This point is obvious. The data 
which follow under Cost of Power show the remarkable variation in the 
cost of power with a change in the load factor. 



POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 473 

STEAM POWER PLANTS. 

Location of steam power plants is governed largely by the water and 
coal supply. The power plant may be placed at almost any supply 
point on the railroad division, providing it is known that ultimately the 
adjacent divisions will be electrified. The center of gravity of the load 
is generally not the best point for the power plant since the length and 
cost of the transmission lines and the losses in lines do not govern plant 
economy, or the total cost of operation. 

Water supply which is convenient and suited to maximum economy 
of boiler operation is obtained. Sufficient water for condensing the 
steam is usually essential. 

Coal supply is placed where there is ample storage. It is not rehauled 
and redistributed to locomotive units. The coal is of a cheap grade, cost- 
ing much less than the lump, or mine-run coal burned on a moving steam 
locomotive. In the production and sale of coal, parts called screenings, 
slack, and culm are readily burned by using mechanical stokers, but 
they cannot be burned on locomotives; yet these screenings can be 
obtained for from 20 to 50 per cent, of the cost of lump coal, and they 
contain 80 to .90 per cent, of the maximum heat units. Expenses are 
thus reduced, and natural resources are conserved, when they are used. 

Lignite coal can be utilized where it is abundant and cheap. It slacks quickly 
and loses its heat units when broken or exposed during transportation. Lignite 
cannot be burned in locomotive furnaces, unless it is treated or briquetted. In the 
Dakotas, Montana, Wyoming, and Washington, the Northern Pacific, Great Northern, 
Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound, and ''Soo" railroads could use to advantage the 
immense deposits of lignite for electric traction, and the power plants could be located 
at mines. Electrification has repeatedly received consideration by these North- 
western roads, which now use Pittsburg coal. Incidentally, the cost of boiler-tube 
repairs and of washing out of boilers in which alkali, foaming, and bad waters are 
used are now a heavy maintenance expense. 

The cost of good coal is ordinarily 50 to 75 cents per long ton at the mine, and the 
cost of transportation, rehandHng at docks, coal depots, etc., forms the larger part 
of the cost. Power plants can be located to advantage at coal mines or at docks, to 
save the cost of handling and of freight haulage. It is obviously cheaper to transmit 
the energy from coal by wires than to transport the coal itself on freight cars. 

Electric railway plants are now being built at coal mines. Eifel Bahn, a double- 
track, 112-mile road which is to run from Cologne to Treves, will obtain power from 
lignite coal fields. Many European roads now utilize lignite and peat for fuel. 
The money is kept in the state or country. Northern Colorado Power Company 
generates power at a lignite coal mine and 6000 kilowatts are transmitted 66 miles 
to several raijways, 2000 kilowatts being used by Denver and Interurban railroad. 
Electric railway power plants are located at mines near Scranton, Pa., Seattle, Wash., 
Girard, Kansas, etc, and opportunities for similar installations are abundant in 
Eastern Pennsylvania and in both Northern and Western Illinois. 

Coal- and ash -handling devices are used in steam power plants, to 
eliminate the labor required to handle, store, and crush the coal, and to 



474 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

remove ashes. Money spent for such equipment pays well. Expert 
firemen are obtained to supervise the operation of boilers. The cost 
of handling coal from the car to the bunkers is about 8 cents per ton. 

Furnaces of modern steam power plants are of the stoker type. The 
coal is broken up and is fed to the stoker by machinery, and the ashes 
are cleaned out, regularly and automatically, without opening the 
furnace doors and chilling the furnace by cold air. The proportions of 
air and coal are well regulated, and the draft is varied automatically 
to assist in producing maximum economy. Combustion is perfected. 
The combustion chamber is high and it is not restricted in volume. 
The coal is first volatilized, the carbon is combined at the right time 
with the hydrogen of the air; the hydro-carbon then unites with oxygen, 
and the carbon which is floating in the hydrogen flame does not come 
in contact with the relatively cold tubes or plates until combustion is 
completed. As a result, smoke is avoided. The furnace is surrounded 
by fire brick and tile. If the tubes and other heating surface are 
within 5 feet of the grates, they are covered with tile. After the coal 
ignites, the gases travel a distance of 6 to 8 feet under an incandescent 
tile arch. Baffles are placed in the combustion chamber to hasten the 
mixture of the air and gases as they leave the fire at times of overload, 
and the stratification of the gases, which naturally prevails, is prevented. 
This furnace design increases the economy and capacity of the boiler. 

Grate surface is such that the number of square feet per square foot 
of heating surface is several times larger in the stationary boiler than in 
the locomotive boiler. A great output for sudden overloads is thus 
possible and cheap grades of coal can be burned efficiently. 

Heating surfaces of boilers are of ample area, and the gases leave 
the boilers at low temperatures. Each boiler unit has from 5000 to 
9000 square feet of heating surface and this reduces the cost of the unit. 
Radiation and maintenance are a minimum. 

Water-tube boilers are used, because it is easy to keep the inside and 
outside of the tubes clean, and thus to maintain the high efficiency. 
Water-tube boilers are rated at 10 square feet of heating surface per 
h. p., but they are capable of withstanding about 100 per cent, overload 
continually, and are so operated in the largest central stations. 

High steam pressures increase the thermal efficiency of the turbines, 
without the excessive repairs and radiation of locomotive boilers. 

Superheat, with its thermal advantage for the prime mover, bigcomes 
practical in central station boilers and prime movers. 

Feed-water heaters and waste-gas economizers increase the efficiency 
of the boiler plant from 12 to 20 per cent. 

Steam turbines are used in the power plant because of their economy 
of steam. They have the following important features: 



POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 475 

Poppet valves with an exact, quick-acting mechanism and minimum 
wearing surface, admit the steam thru large openings. 

Cylinder condensation is a minimum. The walls are not heated 
and cooled as in reciprocating engines. 

Utilization of the energy available in the steam is excellent because 
of the wide limits which are practical for expansion. The total energy 
in steam at 150 pounds gage pressure is about 1195 B. t. u., of which 
about 321 B. t. u. can be utilized between this pressure and a 28-inch 
vacuum. A gain in energy of 33 per cent, is obtained when the 
vacuum is increased from 24 to 29 inches. 

Steam turbines in sizes up to 20,000 kw., direct-connected to electric 
generators, have superseded engines. 

Condensers are used, and they increase the capacity and the economy 
of the prime mover fully 25 per cent. The auxiliary equipment to pro- 
duce a 28-inch vacuum requires 3 to 4 per cent, of the total output of 
the prime mover. A simple jet or barometric condenser is preferable, 
but a surface condenser is more often advantageous. When the water 
contains salt, sewage, alkali, or minerals, condensed steam can be used 
over and over again in the boiler to prevent the foaming which accom- 
panies alkali waters, the pitting and corroding of steel, or the deposit of 
hard, porcelain scale in the boiler tubes. 

Heat insulators surround the furnaces, boilers, piping, and prime 
movers. Radiation losses and cylinder condensation, which are large 
in steam locomotives, are relatively small. The central plant is pro- 
tected from the elements and from the cold winds. 

Opei'ators supervise the production of the power, and do not work 
by brute force. The firemen can become expert, and their entire time 
can be given 'to the economical production of steam. The boiler room 
becomes the important place • for the scientific production of power. 
Coal and flue-gas analyses, checks on the temperatures, and continual 
tests are practical, and of economic value in the large central station. 
Meters assist in checking results, and comparative data are readily 
and continually obtained. 

Number of power plants used depends largely upon the reliability of 
service which is desired. Two interconnected, well-separated plants 
are necessary for important service. Economical limits of power trans- 
mission are not reached by radial feeders 100 miles long, or the length of 
a railroad division. Prudence may dictate that two power plants per 150 
miles of route are necessar}^; yet many electric railways have only one 
power plant for 300 miles of single track. 

Railroads must, of course, combine their interests, and use one power 
plant to supply many railroads and many routes, to avoid duplication in 
power equipment, and also to obtain high load factors and economy in 



476 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

power production. Union railroad terminals illustrate the present joint 
use of heat, power, and light from one power plant. Many electric rail- 
roads now purchase electric power from unaffiliated power corporations. 

Reliability of service can be guaranteed in railway power plants. A 
number of boilers, turbines, and generator units are required for econom- 
ical power production, and trouble at one unit is automatically blocked 
off and isolated, so that it cannot affect continuous service from the 
plant. Two or more power plants are often tied together by duplicate 
transmission lines, so that in case of trouble assistance can be obtained. 
The contact line, however, cannot be in duplicate, and it must therefore 
be of the simplest character. 

Cost of equipment varies with the size and to some extent with the 
type of equipment, and always with the degree of reliability which is 
desired of the complete installation. 

Steam turbines and electric generators are designed to have maximum 
efficiency at about rated load. They can carry an overload of 50 per cent, 
for 2 hours, following the full rated load, with safety, and can carry 25 
per cent, overload continually with a small reduction in efficiency. 
Electrical equipment is purchased and is accepted only after a test with 
a 24-hour full-load, during which the temperature rise is less than 50° C. 
as measured by a thermometer. Insulation of mica, tape, and com- 
pounds are not deteriorated by a temperature of 75° C. 

The data available show that a complete modern steam railway plant 
can generally be constructed for the following: 

COST OF STEAM POWER PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT. 

100,000-kilowatt plants cost, complete $ 60 per kw. 

40,000-kilowatt plants cost, complete 70 per kw. 

20,000-kilowatt plants cost, complete 80 per kw. 

10,000-kilowatt plants cost, complete 90 per kw. 

5,000-kilowatt plants cost, complete 100 per kw. 

2,500-kilowatt plants cost, complete 140 per kw. 

Station buildings and land add from SlO to 20 per kw. 

A large-sized boiler, complete, costs $14 to 20 per h. p. 

One boiler h. p. is used for 2 kw., when 15 lb. of steam are used per kw.-hr. 
Chimneys cost from $4 to $6 per h. p., depending upon permanence, not on size. 

5000-kilowatt turbo-generators cost, complete $30 per kw. 

8000-kilowatt turbo-generators cost, complete 25 per kw. 

14,000-kilowatt turbo-generators cost, complete 20 per kw. 

Large rotary-converter substations cost, complete 40 per kw. 

Large motor-generator substations cost, complete 44 per kw. 

Large transformer substations cost, complete 8 to 10 per kw. 

The relative cost of steam power plants, from an average of the best 
comparable data obtainable, is: Water power plants, 100; water and 



POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 477 

steam plants, 125; steam turbine plants, 155; gas producer and engine 
plants, 180. 

The cost of power will depend largely upon: 

a. Load factor or uniformity of load. (See load factor, page 468.) 

b. Economy of steam per h. p. hr. Steam turbines in larger sizes 
consume 10 pounds of steam per i. h. p. hr., or 15 pounds per kw-hr. ; 
compound condensing Corliss engines show at best 12 pounds of steam 
per i. h. p. hr. ; modern Mallet compound steam locomotives use 24 
pounds per i. h. p. hr. and the ordinary simple steam locomotive in good 
condition averages fully 30 pounds per i. h. p. hr. The relative steam 
consumption in the four cases is 10, 12, 24, 30. 

Steam in turbines expands 28 to 35 times; in Corliss condensing 
engines 20 to 25 times, and in simple and compound steam locomotives 
3 to 5 times. The ratios are 7: 5:1. 

c. Cost of coal per ton. The cheapest grades of coal are used at large 
electric power plants. 

d. The magnitude of the plant. Many economies are incidental in 
operation on a large scale. 

e. Interest on the cost of the plant. This forms a large item in the 
cost of service, and therefore it is important to reduce the amount and 
cost of the equipment used, to have it reliable, and to work it hard. 
Since electric railway service is generally increasing, the design of the 
plant should be such that equipment can be added as needed, and with 
an increase in the economy of fuel and labor. 

The cost of steam-electric power varies with the load factor, as is 
shown by the following example and table. Basis: Steam power plant 
capacity, 10,000; cost per kilowatt installed complete, $100; coal con- 
taining 12,000 B. t. u. per pound of combustible, $2 per 2000 pounds; 
fixed charges for interest, depreciation, and taxes, 12 per cent, per annum. 



COST OF STEAM-ELECTRIC POWER PER KW-HR. ESTIMATED FOR 
VARYING LOAD FACTORS. 



Load 


Ratio Steam per 


Cost of 


Cost of 


Other 


Operating 


Fixed 


Total 


Factor. 


of evap. kw-hr. 


coal. 


labor. 


items. 


charges. 


charges. 


cost. 


10 


8.0 


24 lb. 


.60(^ 


.13<^ 


.12<J 


.85(^ 


1.40^ 


2.25(^ 


25 


8.5 


19 


.45 


.07 


.08 


.60 


.56 


1.16 


50 


9.0 


18 


.40 


.05 


.07 


.52 


.28 


.80 


75 


9.0 1 17 


.38 


.04 


.07 


.49 


.21 


.70 


100 


9.0 16 


.36 1 .03 


.07 


.46 


.14 


.60 


See c 


ompanioi 


1 table OE 


I Cost of 


Hydro-el( 


metric Po\ 


ver, page 48 


i. 





478 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



COST OF STEAM-ELECTRIC POWER PER KW-HR. 
AT LEADING RAILWAY PLANTS. 



• 


Cost of 
coal per 
2000 lb. 


B.t.u. 

per 
kw-hr. 


Operating cost at 


Total cost at 


Load 
fac- 
tor. 


Year 


Name of railway. 


Power 
house. 


Con- 
tact 
line. 


Power 
house. 


Con- 
tact 
line. 


ending 
June. 




$3.20 
4.58 

3.75 




.76 

.60 

.58 
.56 
.60 


«^ 


! 


,v 


1910 


Boston & Worcester 




1 . - 


1906 


New Haven: 

Consolidated, New Haven, 












Cos Cob. 
New York Central 


1.09 


1.02 


2.60 


.48 


1908 








1 






3.15 

2.80 
2.51 
2.18 
2.23 






1.00 




1909 






1909 






.70 
.59 
.54 


1.46 

1.15 

.65 




1 


1908 








.35 


1908 






1910 


Hudson & Manhattan 




1 




Philadelphia R. T 






.55 
• .65 
.60 
.62 
.73 
.53 
.69 
.51 
.65 
.64 






i 


1908 


Harrisburg, Pa 
















Pittsburg Rys . 


1.04 
9. 9.F> 












1909 


International, Buffalo . 












Ohio Electric Ry 










Indiana Union Traction .... 




.91 
.91 








Kokomo, Marion & West. . . 












United Rys., Detroit 


1.65 












.68 








1907 
1909 
1910 
1909 




1.80 
1.60 
1.78 
2.74 
2.26 


28,000 
53,306 
48,625 
44,000 
















.41 




.62 
.59 
.66 

.80 


















1910 


Twin City Rapid Transit. . . . 
Paris- Orleans 


1.34 
2.40 


.88 




.55 


1910 
1905 


Paris- Versailles 


1.24 










1905 

















Manhattan Elevated Railroad records show: Pounds of coal per kw-hr, at the 
power house 2.6, or 3.2 pounds of coal per drawbar h. p. at the train. Its former 
compound steam locomotives averaged 7 pounds of coal per drawbar horse power. 

Cost of power is seldom controlled by the size of the plant, or by the cost of coal ; 
but depends largely upon the average daily load factor, as noted in the table, 
page 477. 

Load factor is defined as the ratio of the average power output for the year to the 
maximum output for one hour, both being measured by watt-hour meters. 



POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 479 
COST OF POWER AND OUTPUT OF ELECTRIC RAILROAD PLANTS. 



Name of railroad. 


Operating 

cost of 

power plant. 


Total 

kw-hr. 

produced. 


Cost per 
kw-hr. 
cents. 


Year 
ending 
June. 


New York, New Haven & Hartford . 


$167,098 
412,715 
126,495 
450,059 
198,610 
149,754 
153,450 
159,929 

2,172,810 






1908 








1909 


New York Central & Hudson River. 
Pennsylvania R. R. : 


21,800,000 


.580 


1909 
1909 


Long Island 

West Jersey & Seashore 

Hudson & Manhattan 


28,500,000 
25,300,000 
28,312,500 


.697 
.592 
.542 


1908 
1908 
1910 
1910 


Interboro Rapid TransH 


402,085,000 

7,982,000 


.543 

.874 


1908 


Albany Southern 


1909 


Erie R. P., Rochester Division 


16,154 

71,462 

724,500 

14,000 


1909 


Baltimore & Ohio 






1909 


Twin City Rapid Transit 

Colorado & Southern 


116,868,000 


.620 


1910 
1909 











STEAM-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT INSTALLATIONS FOR 
ELECTRIC RAILWAY TRAINS. 



Name of railway. 


Kilowatts 
installed. 


Motor 
cars. 


Loco- 
motives. 


Mile- 
age. 


Boston Elevated Ry. : 










Elevated Division 


60,000 


225 


2 


26 


Massachusetts Electric 


10,000 
18,500 


2,015 
830 




933 


Rhode Island Providence 




318 


Shore Line Electric, New Haven 


6,000 


12 





52 


Boston & Maine: Hoosac Tunnel 


4,000 





5 


22 


New York, New Haven & Hartford : 










New York Div., 17,000 kw. in 1910. . 


33,100 


8 


44 


100 


New York Central & Hudson River: 










Harlem Division, Port Morris . . \ 
Hudson Division, Kings Bridge. . . / 


40,000 


137 


47 


150 


Manhattan Elevated, 74th Street 


60,000 


895 





119 


Interborough Subway, 59th Street. . . . 


90,000 


910 





85 


Hudson & Manhattan 


18,000 


200 





18 


Brooklyn Rapid Transit: El. Div 




659 


15 


107 


Pennsylvania R. R. : 










Pennsylvania Tunnel and Terminal \ 


32,500 


361 


33 


95 


Long Island R. R. / 


2 


164 


West Jersey & Seashore 


8,000 


108 





154 


Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley 


5,000 


35 


2 


50 


Baltimore & Ohio 


3,000 





12 


7 







480 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



STEAM-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT INSTALLATIONS FOR ELECTRIC 
RAILWAY TRAINS.— Continued. 



Name of railway. 



Kilowatts 
installed. 



Motor 
cars. 



Locomo- 
tives. 



Mile- 
age. 



Baltimore & Annapolis Short Line. . 
Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville . . . 

Erie R. R., Rochester Division 

Grand Trunk Ry. : 

St. Clair Tunnel & Terminal 

Michigan Central R. R.: 

Detroit River Tunnel 

Fort Wayne & Wabash Valley 

Indianapolis & Cincinnati 

Chicago, Lake Shore & South Bend . . 
Commonwealth Edison, Chicago: 
Twin City Rapid Transit 

Minneapolis & St. Paul. 

East St. Louis & Suburban 

Rock Island Southern 

Central London 

London Electric 

Great Northern & City 

Great Western, M. & W. L 

Metropolitan Railway 

City & South London 

London, Brighton & S. C. . . . 

Mersey Ry 

Lancashire & Yorkshire: 

Li^verpool-Southport 

North-Eastern 



1,800 
3,000 
2,250 

2,500 

2,000 
8,500 
3,000 
4,500 
244,000 
46,000 

5,500 
5,000 
7,100 

44,000 
3,440 
6,000 

20,500 
3,850 
Purchased. 
3,750 

10,750 
9,000 



12 
23 

6 





200 

25 

24 

2000 

800 

170 
10 
68 

383 
35 
40 

130 



46 

24 

80 
62 



6 




2 

2 

1 

40 

4 





11 

52 






6 



35 

85 
40 

12 

19 
212 
116 
117 
1250 
380 

181 
82 
13 

168 
7 
11 
60 
16 
62 
10 

82 
82 



GAS POWER PLANTS. 

Gas engines and gas producers are used to a very limited extent for 
electric railway power for the following reasons: 

Cost is high because the intermittent action, and instantly applied 
high pressures used, increase the strains, size, and weight of the engines. 
Cost varies from $150 to $180 per kilowatt for a complete gas and electric 
plant, or 50 per cent, more than the cost of a complete steam turbine 
plant. Cost of gas engines and producers, without electric generators, 
is twice that of turbines and boilers. Speeds are slow in the best designs, 
and this increases the cost of the engine, electric generator, foundations, 
floor space and the power building. 



POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 481 

Operation with electric generators in parallel is difficult without 
excessive rotating weights, but is easier with 15 than with 25 cycles. 

Reliability is questioned in all cases. Two spare prime movers are 
desirable in gas power plants, w^hile one is usual in steam or hydraulic 
service. However, gas engines in the Edgar Thomson Works and in 
the U. S. steel plants run for months without an hour's delay. 

Manufacturers and users lack experience with the large units of 3000 
to 15,000 kilowatts required for railway plants. 

Overload capacity of gas engines are small, compared with overload 
capacity of steam engines and steam turbines. 

Producer and engine manufacturers have not worked together in 
the past, but complete outfits are now built by one manufacturer. 

Conditions and location which favor the development of power from 
gas producers and engines are those wherein: 

1. Low grades of coal and lignites are available in original deposits, 
or as waste in mining. 

2. Cost of power, or fuel, or freight, is relatively high. Transporta- 
tion facilities to handle low-grade fuel may not be available, in which 
case plants may be located at mines and power may be transmitted by 
wires over mountains. 

3. Natural gas from coke fields, blast furnaces, etc., is available, and 
cheap, and wherever expenditures for gas producers are avoided. 

Economj^ of fuel is shown by the records of four 2000-kw. units at the 
Illinois Steel Company's plant, operating on blast-furnace gas, wherein 
only 15,000 B. t. u. per kw-hr. at the switchboard are used. A gas 
producer with 75 per cent, efficiency would raise the unit consumption, 
with coal, to 20,000 B. t. u. 



GAS-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT INSTALLATION. 



Name of railway. 


Year 


Mile- 


No. of 


H. p. 


Kw. 


Name of 


Name of 


Kind of 




placed. 


age. 


units. 


total. 


total. 


engme. 


producer. 


fuel. 


Boston Elevated 


1906 


20 


2 


1220 


700 


Crossley . . 


Loomis . . . 


Bit. coal. 


Elmira Water, Light & 

R. R. 
Warren & Jamestown. . . 


1904 


27 


1 


1400 


750 


Crossley . . 


None 


Nat. Gas. 


1905 


42 


2 


940 


500 


West 


None 


Nat. gas. 


Western N. Y. & Penn. . 


1906 


93 


3 


1500 


900 


West 


None 


Nat. gas. 


Philadelphia Rapid Tr. . 


1911 




1 


940 


500 


West 


Wood... . 


Anth.coal. 


Charlotte Electric Ry . . . 


1908 




2 


1620 


1080 


Snow 


Loomis . . . 


Bit. coal. 


Georgia Railway & Elec . 


1907 


166 


1 


3000 


2000 


Snow 


None 


Nat. gas. 


Milwaukee Northern .... 


1907 


60 


3 


6000 


3000 


AUis 


Loomis . . . 


Bit. coal. 


Union Traction, Kansa.s. 


1907 
! 1908 


39 
20 


2 


1000 
672 






None 

None 


Nat. gas. 


Missouri & Kansas 


400 


Buckeye. . 


Nat. gas. 


Midland Ry., England. . . 


1908 


18 


3 


750 


450 


West 


Mond .... 


Bit. coal. 



31 



482 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

WATER POWER PLANTS. 

The general characteristics of power plants which were outlined at 
the beginning of this chapter, namely capacity, economy, relatively con- 
stant load, relatively small amount of equipment and load factor, 
apply to water power plants. 

Utilization of water power is a distinguishing feature of electric 
traction. Water power is usually cheaper than steam. The energy can 
be utilized for 18 or more hours of the day, because the load factor of the 
electric railway is higher than for electric lighting. Electric railway 
companies can purchase power at a lower rate; or they can afford to pay 
more for a given water power development, because they need more and 
are able to use it to a better commercial advantage. 

Steam railroads are purchasing many of the best water powers in the 
country. Their heavy loads, excellent load factor, and the economy to 
be gained with hydro-electric power justified this action. 

Water supply varies with the season and rainfall, while the total 
daily load required for railway trains is relatively constant. Water 
turbines are most efficient at full load and the overload capacity is small. 
Uniformity of water supply of and demands for power, may be gained in 
several w^ays: 

a. Water may be stored. Dam sites at the power plant, and reser- 
voirs at the upper reaches of the river, provide for the efficient use of the 
water and also of the water power investment. Storage of water is often 
obtained by flooding pasture land during the winter months only. Stor- 
age of water in a 300,000-gallon elevated steel tank is provided by the 
Great Northern Railway for its Cascade Tunnel electric railway plant 
to equalize the flow and pressure. 

b. Electrical energy may be stored in chemical batteries. 

c. Mechanical energy may be stored in' fly wheels, as is now^ done in 
electric hoisting, for use during short peak loads. (See Load Factor.) 

• d. Power may be regenerated by single-phase or three-phase railway 
motors on heavy grades, so that a down-grade train will furnish most Oj" 
the energy, required to haul the up-grade train. 

e. Train schedule may be revised so that trains do not bunch during 
a few hours of the day to form a high peak load. 

f . Other plans were referred to in the section on Load Factor. 
Water power is available in sufficient quantities to provide energy for 

most of the train service in Ontario, Northern New York, Michigan, Wis- 
consin, Minnesota, Colorado, Utah, Idaho, Montana, and the Pacific Coast 
states. This energy will be utilized in the future by electric railroads. 
In mountainous districts energy can be developed at a low cost and 
this is particularly fortunate since the cost of steam power is highest 
in mountain service. 



POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 483 

Reliability of water power plants is often questioned. Many failures 
have occurred. Some of the causes are listed: 

Concealment of facts, or deliberate lying by promotors; incompetent 
engineering work by inexperienced men; insufficient detail in plans and 
specifications; lack of provision for local and head water storage; lack 
of good and uniform foundations; dams built on sand; lack of sheet 
piling above, in, below, and running the full length of the dam; lack of 
solid material at the ends of the dam; poor cement; bad concrete; 
insufficient steel reinforcing; bad setting of good concrete, with poor 
management; improperly built, graded approaches to dams; inadequate 
provision to prevent damage by ice shoving; insufficient spillway; con- 
gested discharge area; high ratio of flood to low water discharge, 
especially in small streams and in mountain streams; lack of flowage 
data covering many years. 

(Note. — In the northwestern states the absolute minimum flowage in winter is 
found to average about 0.1 C. F. S. per square mile of drainage area. The low 
flowage occurs in February, and averages 0.2 C. F. S. while the average flowage during 
the winter months and during the dry summer months averages about 0.3 C. F. S. 
per square mile of drainage area. Stillwell gave data, for other parts of the country, 
to A.. I. E. E., June, 1910.) 

Equipment cost of water power plants for railways varies widely 
but depends upon: 

Cost of site, reservoir, and flowage lands; head or fall of water; constancy of 
flowage; amount of power developed; distance from railway or lake transportation; 
permanency of construction; length of transmission; brokerage, risk, and watered stock. 

Quantitatively, the cost of complete hydraulic plants averages from 
$100 to $200 per kilowatt installed. Relatively, the cost of water power 
plants, from a fair average of all available data, is 80 per cent, of the 
cost of steam power plants. Installation cost of hydro-electric plants, 
including substations, but not distributing lines, varies from $200 to 
$250 per kilowatt of delivered power. A reserve steam plant alone costs 
an additional $75 per kilowatt. Wooden flumes with a capacity of 200 
second feet may cost $30,000 per mile and have an annual charge for in- 
terest, depreciation, and maintenance of 20 to 25 per cent. Tunnels in 
lieu of flumes may cost $100,000 per mile, but the annual charge is 
nearer 7 per cent. 

The cost of hydro-electric power varies with the load factor, as is 
shown by the following example and table. 

Hydro-electric plant capacity, 10,000 kilowatts; cost per kilowatt in- 
stalled complete $200; fixed charges: interest, 6 per cent.; depreciation, 
4; taxes, 2; total, 12 per cent., or $24 per kilowatt per year. 

Operating expenses, repairs, renewals, and wages vary from $17,500 
per year with uniform load to $13,000 per year with lightest load. 



484 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



COST OF HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER. 

Estimated for Varying Load Factors. 



Load 
factor. 


Operating 
charges. 


Fixed 
charges. 


Cost per 
kw-hr. 


Cost per 

e. h. p. 

year. 


10 


.16^ 


2.74^ 


2.90^ 


$ 18.95 


25 


.06 


1.10 


1.16 


18.95 


50 


.03 


.55 


.58 


18.95 


75 


.02 


.37 


.39 


19.12 


100 


.02 


.28 


.30 


19.60 



Cost of steam-electric power per kw-hr. (see table page 477) is usually lower than 
the cost of hydro-electric power when the load factor is less than 25 per cent. 



HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS FOR RAIL 


WAYS. 




Name of railway. 


Kilowatts 
installed. 


Motor 
cars. 


Locomo- 
tives. 


■ 
Railway 
mileage. 


Albany Southern R. R 




45 
157 
150 

21 

6 


1 







62 


Schenectady Ry 




133 


Ottawa Electric Ry 




45 


West Shore R. R 


600 

2,250 

14,500 

1,000 

10,500 
1,000 

750 
13,000 

2,000 
9,600 

11,000 
8,000 
2,700 
6,000 
3,000 

16,000 
1,500 
4,000 
2,000 
6,000 


114 


Ontario Power Co.: 

Erie R. R. . . . 


40 


Lockport; Rochester; Syracuse 

Niagara Gorge Ry. . . 




28 
950 




2 


3 
2 

2 
2 


32 


Niagara Falls Power Co.: 

International Ry 


374 


Tonawanda Ry 




Electrical Development Co : 

Niagara, St. Catharine & Toronto. . 
Toronto Ry. Company 


16 

850 

30 
1000 


50 
114 


Canadian Pacific R. R. : 
jHull-Aylmer Division 


26 


Montreal Street Railway 


224 


Grand Rapids, Michigan, Rys 

Indiana & Michigan Electric 

Illinois Traction (Marseilles) 

Milwaukee Electric ... 








150 




■ 


600 


398 





137 


Wisconsin Traction Company 

T. C. R. T., Minneapolis and St. Paul. . 

Duluth-Superior Traction 

Winnipeg General Power 




800 
119 


2 



380 
76 
40 


Denver & Interurban R. R 

Montana Power Transmission 


16 
80 





54 
50 



POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 485 
HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAYS.— Continued. 



Name of railway. 



Kilowatts Motor j Locomo- 

installed. cars. I tives. 



Railway 
mileage. 



Spokane & Inland Empire 

Washington Water Power 

Seattle Electric. . 

Puget Sound Electric 

Portland Ry., Light and Power. 

Oregon Electric 

Great Northern 

United Rys., San Francisco. . . . 

Los Angeles-Pacific 

Pacific Electric 

French Southern 

Valtellina Ry., Italy 



40,000 
21^000 
15,000 



15,000 
2,250 
7,500 

26,800 
7,500 



38,000 
4,150 



582 

130 

289 

100 

309 

24 



425 

523 

675 

30 

10 



14 


1 
10 
7 
3 
4 



20 

7 
6 



287 

98 

170 

200 

472 

80 

6 



260 

700 

75 

70 



TECHNICAL DESCRIPTIONS OF INSTALLATIONS. 

NEW YORK, NEW HAVEN & HARTFORD RAILROAD. 

Power plant is installed at Cos Cob, on the main line of the New 
York division, at an outlet of a river, and on a navigable bay. The 
location is 30 miles east of New York. In 1910 the plant -contained: 

Twelve boilers, 525-h.p. each, with 125° superheat, 200 pounds 
pressure; with Roney stokers. Green economizers, and induced draft; 
four Parsons-Westinghouse steam turbines; three 3700-kw., 11,000-volt, 
25-cycle alternators; and one 6000-kw., 11,000-volt, 25-cycle alternator. 

The alternators are three-phase star-connected. Two legs are used, 
the remaining leg being idle. Transformers and substations are not used 
between the generators and locomotives, i. e., the station feeds a 11,000- 
volt contact line directly. 

The 1910 power service included the supply of electrical energy to 
about 20 of 42 locomotives and 4 of 6 motor cars for all electric passenger 
trains on the 4-track, 22-mile road between Woodlawn, N. Y., and Stam- 
ford, Connecticut, and 1000 kilowatts for street railways, shops, pump- 
ing, and signals. Energy is purchased from the New York Central for 
the service between Grand Central Station and Woodlawn, 12 miles. 

In the 1910 power service three alternators, with a single-phase 
rating of 3700 kv-a. at 80 per cent p. f., or 5500 kv-a. three-phase, 
carried about 1000 amperes at 11,200 to 13,500 volts. The power factor 
was .75 maximum,. 65 average, and less for minimum loads. Three alter- 
nators were used on the peak loads, during which 1700 amperes ex- 
isted for 30 seconds followed by 400 amperes. High peaks occurred on 



486 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Saturdays. The peak load was 12,000 kilowatts yet the minimum load 
at night averaged 500 kilowatts. The peaks varied from 20 to 30 per 
cent, above and below the average load, during daylight hours. 

Every passenger locomotive is in service during the evening load. 

Economy of the station is low because the line is so short that there 
is no railway load from midnight to morning, during which time a 3000 
turbo-alternator and all boilers are used; and because the average 
number of locomotives in service, about 20, is small. The peak loads 
are hard on the furnaces and the boiler economy is reduced. 

The extension of the road to New Haven, 73 miles, the electrification 
of 63 miles of freight yards on the Harlem River Branch, and the con- 
struction of the New York, Westchester & Boston Railroad, in 1911, 
required the addition of four 4000 kw. turbo-alternators. 

Reference. 

Coster: Electric Journal, Jan., 1908; E. R. J., Aug. 31, 1907; Murray: A. I. E. E., 
1908-9-10-11. 

NEW YORK CENTRAL & HUDSON RIVER RAILROAD. 

The plants of this company are located on opposite sides of Manhat- 
tan Island, the Port Morris station on the East River and the Kings- 
bridge station on a slip leading from the Hudson River near the load 
centers of the Harlem Division, and on the Hudson Division. The 
Kingsbridge station is practically a reserve duplicate plant and is used 
as a substation. 

Each plant now contains 16 of twenty-four 625-h. p. boilers, with 
Roney stokers; and 4 of six 5000-kilowatt Curtis, 25-cycle, three-phase, 
11,000-volt turbo-alternators. 

The energy is distributed at 11,000 volts pressure by underground 
cables and by overhead steel transmission towers to 9 rotary converter 
substations along the Harlem and the Hudson electric divisions. 

The load factor of the plants is only 50 per cent., the routes being 
short, and the power being used at present for suburban passenger and 
terminal service. The peak load is only 20,000 kw. 

References. 

S. R. J., Nov. 11, 1905; Sept. 29, 1906; Oct. 12, 1907. 

INTERBORO RAPID TRANSIT COMPANY. 

The Interboro plants supply energy for the Manhattan Elevated 
Railroad from the Seventy-fourth Street station, and for the New York 
Subway from the West Fifty-ninth Street station, on Manhattan Island. 



POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 487 

The Seventy-fourth Street station contains sixty-four 500-h. p., B. & W. 
boilers with Roney stokers, economizers, and superheaters; and eight 
AUis-Westinghouse, 5000-kilowatt engine-generator units. 

The Fifty-ninth Street station contains sixty 600-h.p. B. & W. 
boilers with Roney stokers at the front and also at the rear of the 
boilers. Economizers and superheaters are used. The generating equip- 
ment consists of nine Allis-Westinghouse 5000-kilowatt engine generators, 
each with a 5000-kilowatt Curtis exhaust steam turbine with induction 
generators. The recent introduction of the exhaust steam turbines did 
not increase the size of the building, but improved the fuel economy 33 
per cent. Pennsylvania semi-bituminous coal is used, which has about 
14,250 B. t. u. The thermal efficiency of the engine-turbo unit is 20 
per cent. 

Generators are 25-cycle, three-phase, 11,000-volt. The energy is 
transmitted at 11,000 volts, to direct-current converter substations. 
The peak load of the two plants exceeds 177,000 kw. 

References. 

Manhattan, Pegram and Baker: S. R. J., Jan. 5, 1901; Subway, Van Vleck: S. R. J., 
Oct. 8, 1904; Oct. 12, 1907; Aug. 14, 1909; Stott: Elec. Journal, May, 1905; 
Aug, 1907. 



HUDSON & MANHATTAN RAILROAD. 

The power plant is well located in Jersey City near the center of the 
New York City, Hoboken, Jersey City, and Newark load. 

The generating equipment consists of two 3000-kilowatt and two 
6000-kilowatt turbo-alternators of the vertical Curtis type. Units are 
installed on a basis of one chimney and four 900-h. p., B. & W. boilers 
per 6000-kilowatt generator. The present plant is designed for 16 
l)oilers. Green fuel economizers are used for each group of boilers. 

Three substations, each containing four 1500-kilowatt, 600-volt 
rotary converters, have been installed. 

Motive power is supplied to 200 motor cars of 320-h. p. capacity each 
for the most important tunnel and rapid transit service in America. 

Reference. 
E. R. J., March 5, 1910. 

LONG ISLAND RAILROAD. 

The power plant is located in Long Island City on the East River 
advantageous to fuel, and it is near the center of the combined loads of 



488 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



the Long Island Railroad and the Pennsylvania Tunnel and Terminal 
Railroad. Thirty-two 564-h. p. B. & W. boilers have Roney stokers. 
Sixteen duplicate boilers can be added in the present building. Natural 
draft is used. The cheapest low-grade fuels are burned to advantage in 
the furnaces. Three 5500- and two 8000-kilowatt turbo-alternators 
deliver 11, 000-volt, 3-phase, 25-cycle energy to transmission lines which 
distribute energy to many 660-volt converter substations. 
The plant can be extended to house 100,000 kw. capacity. 

Load peaks in July, 1910, exceeded 16,000 kilowatts; after the Penn- 
sylvania locomotives and Pennsylvania-Long Island motor-car trains 
were added, in 1910, the load peak increased to 30,000 kw. 

Reference. 

E. R. J., Nov. 4, 1905; October 12, 1907; Gibbs, June 3, 1911. 



If M i n ij- 







"i irynm 




Fig. 180. — Pennsylvania-Long Island Railroad Power Plant. 
Three 5,500-kilowatt Westinghouse turbines and 25-cycle, 3-phase, 11, 000- volt alternators. 



WEST JERSEY & SEASHORE RAILROAD. 

The power plant is located on the main line of the electric division of 
the road between Atlantic City and Philadelphia, at Westfield, 8 miles 
south of Philadelphia. 

The station contains eight 358-h. p. Stirling boilers, with stokers. 

Generating equipment consists of four 2000-kilowatt, 6600-volt, 25- 
cycle, three-phase Curtis turbo-alternators. 

The energy is transmitted at 33,000 volts to eight 675-volt converter 
substations, located along the 75 miles of road, by 70 miles of duplicate 
33,000-volt transmission line. The capacity of these substations is 17,000 



POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 489 

kilowatts. The loss between the station switchboard and the substation 
output varies from 20 to 24 per cent. 

References. 

S. R. J., Nov. 10, 1906; Oct. 12, 1907; Gibbs, Ry. Age Gazette, March 25, 1910. 

COMMONWEALTH EDISON COMPANY, CHICAGO. 

The main Quarry-Fisk street power plant has these features: 

Boiler units are rated 550 h. p. each, but are worked up to 1100 h. p. 
Chain grate stokers feed coal under the mud drums, reversing the usual 
direction of flue gas travel. The draft which is produced by steel 
chimneys is . 75 inches, water gage. Coal used is a high-volatile, Illinois 
screening. A boiler efficiency of 63 per cent, is obtained. The coal con- 
sumption is 60 pounds per square foot of grate surface per hour. 

Steam turbine units consist of ten 12,000-kilowatt and six 14,000- 
kilowatt units. The maximum output is 184,000 kilowatts on peak 
load in winter. Six 20,000-kilowatt turbines were ordered in 1910 for its 
new Northwestern power plant. The economy of the present plants is 
stated to be 28,000 B. t. u. per kw.-hr. 

Energy is sold lo every railway which hauls electric trains in Chicago, 
at $15 per kw-year of maximum demand, plus 0.4 cent per kw-hour. 

TWIN CITY RAPID TRANSIT CO., MINNEAPOLIS. 

The steam plant has the following equipment : 

Twenty-eight 600-h. p., B. & W. boilers, with 150° of superheat, 
175 pounds pressure, which on 1-inch draft, operate regularly at 1100- 
h. p. capacity; two 3500-kilowatt Allis-Corliss vertical engines; two 
5000-kilowatt, and two 14,000-kilowatt Curtis steam turbo-alternators. 

In the rebuilding of this plant, erected in 1902, two 16-foot by 220- 
foot tile and brick chimneys have been replaced by four 14-foot by 
263-foot steel stacks, lined thruout with 4 inches of concrete; the Roney 
stokers which are suitable for eastern coals Vere replaced by chain grate 
stokers which burn either northern Illinois or Youghiogheny screenings to 
advantage; grate areas have been increased 20 per cent. ; coal is now stored 
and flooded in concrete cells in place of being allowed to deteriorate in 
huge piles; cast iron fittings were replaced by steel fittings and nickel- 
l)ronze valve seats for the superheated steam; and the four vertical cross- 
compound, condensing Allis-Corliss engines are now being replaced by 
14,000-kilowatt 5-stage and 6-stage vertical Curtis steam turbines. 
Storage of heat in water under full pressure is planned for peak loads. 

Steam consumption of the steam engines is 22 pounds per kw.-hr. ; 
of the small steam turbines, 20 pounds; of the 14,000-kilowatt, 14 pounds. 

The peak load at the power plant is 35,000 or 50 kilowatts per car. 



490 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



Two water power plants, with 16,000 kilowatts capacity, near the 
steam plant, carry the body of the railway load. 

Power has been distributed since 1897 by means of underground 
13 200-volt, paper-insulated cables, to 11 converter substations in 
Minneapolis and St. Paul, and long interurban lines. The efficiency 
between the alternating-current bus and the car is 60 per cent. 

Car equipment consists of eight hundred 45-foot, 22- to 25-ton, steel- 
framed motor cars, each equipped with from 200 to 300 h. p. in motors; 
and there are twenty-two 45-foot motor cars in heavy freight service. 




Fig. 181. — Twin City Rapid Transit Co. 5000-kw. Curtis Steam Turbo-alternators. 

33-cycle, 13.200-volts. 

The 33-cycle, three-phase system was chosen in 1896, at which time 
seven 700-kilowatt alternators and five 600-kilowatt 660-volt railway 
rotary converters were purchased in connection with the equipment of 
the first Water power plant. Plans were made to combine all electric 
railway and lighting power plants and interests, and the 33-cycle system 
was not only suitable for the railway rotary converters, but for the 
arc and incandescent lighting in the city of Minneapolis. Neither 25 nor 
60 cycles would have been satisfactory for the combined service. 



MILWAUKEE NORTHERN RAILWAY. 

This power plant is located at Port Washington, near the middle of 
the company's 58-mile road between Milwaukee and Sheboygan, Wis. 



POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 491 

It is one of the very few successful gas producer and gas engine 
plants. There are four Loomis-Pettibone bituminous gas producers 
which burn a cheap grade of Hocking Valley bituminous slack coal and 
deliver gas wdth about 125 B. t. u. per cubic foot. There are three 1250- 
kilowatt, 32x42, 4-cylinder, twin, tandem, horizontal, double-acting Allis 
gas engines, each direct-connected to 25-cycle, three-phase, 405-volt, 
107-r. p. m. alternators. Electric power is furnished, thru transformers 
and rotary converters, to a high-grade interurban railway. 




Fig. 182. — Milwaukee Northern Railway Power Plant. 

Two 12.30 kilowatt gas engines and 25-cycle, 3-phase, 405-volt, 107 r.p.m. alternators, built 

by the Allis -Chalmers Company. 




Fig. 18:-5. — Great Northern Railway — Cascade Tunnel Power Plant Equipment. 



GREAT NORTHERN RAILWAY. 

The water power plant used to propel trains thru the Cascade Tun- 
nel is located 30 miles east of the tunnel. The plant was designed by 
Mr. J. T. Fanning of Minneapolis. 

The equipment consists of three 4000-h. p. horizontal Smith turbines 



492 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

each direct-connected to a 2500 kv-a., 6600-volt, 25-cycle, 375 r. p. m. 
alternator. The units have a large overload capacitj^ for train ser- 
vice. Four transformers raise the voltage from 6600 to 33,000 volts. 
Each transformer is rated 844 kilowatt but will operate at 100 per 
cent, overload for 1 hour with a reasonable rise *n temperature. 

The head of water is 185 feet. To equalize the pressure due to fric- 
tion and inertia of the water in an 8.5-foot stave pipe line, 11,000 feet 
long, between the dam and the power plant, a 360,000-gallon steel tank 
is connected to the foot of the pipe line. The water is lowered 12 feet 
when a 2000-ton train is accelerated, and, when the load is thrown off, the 
water is relieved by an inside overflow pipe having a funnel-shaped head. 
The regulation of the suddenly applied 5000-h. p. load was the hardest 
of the many problems involved. About 21,000 tons of water moving 
at the rate of 8 to 10 feet per second cannot be retarded quickly. The 
surge tank takes care of the work safely and without waste of large 
amounts of energy or of water. 

LONDON ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 

The Chelsea power plant of the company in London is one of the 
largest electric railway plants in the world. It feeds the Great Northern, 
Piccadilly, and Brompton Railway; the Charing Cross, Euston & Hamp- 
stead Railway; Baker Street and Waterloo Railway; Metropolitan and 
District Railway; and other railway and power loads. 

Eight 5500-kilowatt Parsons steam turbo-alternators are installed. 

The alternators are 33-cycle 11,000-volt units and feed common 
600-volt rotary converter substations. 

literature; 

Text Books on Steam Power. 

Parshall and Hobart: "Electric Railway Engineering," Chapter V. 

Hob art: "Heavy Electrical, Engineering," English practice in detail. 

Dawson: "Electric Traction on Railways," Chapter XXI, English practice. 

Berg: "Electrical Energy," McGraw, 1908, Section II, Efficiency of Prime Movers. 

Gebhardt: "Steam Power Plant Engineering," Wiley, 1909. 

French: "Steam Turbines," McGraw, 1908. 

Weingreen: "Electric Power Plant Engineering," McGraw, 1910. 

Reeve: "Energy," McGraw, 1909. 

Koester: "Steam-Electric Power Plants," Van Nostrand, 1909. 

Ennis: "Applied Thermodynamics," Van Nostrand, 1911. 

Cost of Steam Power Plants. 

Review in E. W., Feb. 4, 1909; E. R. J., March 27, 1909. 

Stott: Power Plant Economies, A. I. E. E., Jan. 1906, Dec. 18, 1909. 

Bibbins: A. I. E. E., July, 1908; S. R. J., Oct. 19, 1907. 



POAYER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 493 

Cost of Power. 

Boston & Worcester Ry., S. R. J., May 4, 1907, p. 760. 

N. Y., N. H. & H. (Consolidated Rj.), S. R. J., March 3, 1906. 

New York Central, Wilgus, A. S. C. E., March 18, 1909. 

Harrisburg, S. R. J., Sept. 28, 1907. 

West Jersey and Seashore, Wood to A. I. E. E., June, 1911. 

Chicago Edison Contracts with Railways, E. R. J., Oct. 31, 1908, p. 1291. 

Steam Turbines. 

Steinmetz: Theory of Prime Movers, A. I. E. E., Feb. 1909. Discussion of cost of 
steam power, economy, investment, reliability, and thermodynamic efficiency. 

Berg: Losses in Transformation of Energy in Coal to Electrical, G. E. Review, 
July, 1910. 

Reports to Amer. Elec. Ry. Assoc, E. R. J , Oct. 15, 1908, p. 1097. 

Kirkland: Energy of Steam, G. E. Review, Dec, 1908. 

Goodenough: Relative Economy of Turbines and Engines, S. R. J., Oct. 20, 1906. 

Bibbins: Recent Developments in Steam Turbine Power Station and Cost of Power, 
S. R.J. , Oct. 19, 1907. 

Emmet: Steam Turbines, Reasons for Existence, G. E. Review, Jan., 1908. 

Burleigh: Steam Turbines, G. E. Review, Nov., 1910. 

Text Books on Gas Power. 

Junge: "Gas Power," McGraw, 1908. 

Juptner: "Heat Energy of Fuels," McGraw, 1909. 

Supplee: "The Gas Turbine," Lippincott, 1910. 

Levin: "Modern Gas Engine and Gas Producer," Wiley, 1909. 

References on Gas-Electric Power Plants. 

Catalogs: Allis, Snow, and Westinghouse Companies. 

Bibbins: On Design and Operation, S. R. J., Dec. 20, 1903; Sept. 30, 1905. 

Alden and Bibbins: on Economy, A. S. M. E., Dec, 1907; S. R. J., Dec. 21, 1907. 

Anderson and Porter: Large Gas Engines, Inst, of Elec Eng., London, Feb., 1909; 

Elec Review, N. Y., May 8, 1909. 
Tuttle: Gas Producers, E. R. J., May 16, 1908. 
Harvey: Gas Producers, A. S. M. E., Oct., 1908. 

Boston Elevated R. R., Winsor, S. R. J., Oct. 20, 1906; Oct. 19, 1907. 
Warren and Jamestown, N. Y.: S. R. J., Feb. 17, 1906; Elec. Journal, April, 1906; 
Western N. Y. & Pennsylvania: E. R. J., July 18, 1908. 
Charlotte (N. G.) Electric Ry.: A. I. E. E., May, 1910. 
Milwaukee Northern: S. R. J., Dec. 7, 1907. 
Midland Railway, England: E. R. J., July 4, 1908. 

Text Books on Water Power. 

Mead: " Water Power Engineering," McGraw, 1908. 

Frizell: "Water Power," Wiley, 1908. 

Fanning: "Water Supply," Van Nostrand, 1902. 

Merriman: "Hydrauhcs," Wiley, 1904. 

Church: "Mechanics of Fluids," Wiley, 1898. 

Beardsley: "Design and Construction of Hydro-electric Plants," McGraw, 1908. 



494 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

VonSchon: "Hydro-electric Practice," Lippincott, 1908. 
Hutchinson: "Water Power and Transniissions," Van Nostrand, 1907. 
Thurso: " Turbine Practice, " Van Nostrand, 1905. 

Lyndon: "Development and Distribution of Water Power," Wiley, 1908. 
HoYT and Grover: "River Discharge," Wiley, 1907. 
Wegman: "Design and Construction of Dams," Wiley, 1908. 
Koester: "Hydro-electric Development," McGraw, 1909. 
Adams: "Electric Transmission of Water Power," McGraw, 1906. 

References on Water Power. 

Reports: U. S. Geological Survey; U. S. Census; Weather Bureau; U. S. Army 

Reports. 
Stillwell: Conservation of Water Powers, A. I. E. E., June, 1910. 
Osgood: Organization and Operation, A. I. E. E., Feb., 1907. 
Darlington: Development and Cost, A. I. E. E., April, 1906. 
Herschell: Notes on Water Power Plants, E. W., Jan. 14, 1909. 
Horton: Redevelopment of Water Power, G. E. Review, March, 1908. 
Mead: Valuation of Water Powers; a report to Wisconsin State Commission, Dec, 

1909; E. W., Dec. 23, 1909, p. 1514; A. S. M. E., Jan., 1903. 
Beardsley: Financial Aspect; A. I. E. E., Dec, 1910. 
Burch: Turbine Testing, Elec World, Dec. 22, 1900. 

Storer and Rushmore: Load Factor and Design, A. I. E. E., March, 1908. 
Henry: High Head Water Powers, A. I. E. E., Sept., 1903. 
Adams: Stave Pipe, A. S. C. E., 1898, p. 676. 
Sale of Power: 

Harvey: Elec Age, Sept., 1906. 

Storer: Elec. Age, Aug., 1906; Eng. Record, Nov. 3, 1906. 

Parsons: Eng. Record, 54-161; S. R. J., June 30, 1906. 

Fowler: E. W., Sept. 7, 1907, p. 456. 

References on Water Power Plants. 

Niagara Falls: Electric Railway Power Load, E. W., Oct. 21, 1909. 

Grand Rapids-Muskegon Power Co.: E. W., Sept. 16, 1909. 

Great Northern Power: Duluth, Elec. World, 1900-1908; July 28, 1906. 

St. Anthony Falls, Minneapolis: Burch, N. W. Ry. Club, April 10, 1900; S. R. J., 

Aug. 11, 1900; American Electrician, May, 1898. 
Twin City Rapid Transit: S. R. J., May, 1898, Mar. 1 and Aug. 11, 1902, E. R. J., 

June 5, 1909. 
Great Northern Railway, Cascade Tunnel: Hutchinson, A. I. E. E., Nov., 1909. 
Southern California: E. W., July 29 and Oct. 28, 1909. 
Utah: E. W., July 15, 1909. 

Great Western Power Co., CaUfornia: E. W., Aug. 26, Sept 16 and 23, 1909. 
Valtellina Ry., Italy: Load Diagrams, etc., S. R. J., Aug. 26, 1905. 



POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 495 



This page is reserved for additional references and notes on power plants 
for railway train service. 



CHAPTER XIV. 
PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION. 

Outline. 

Essential Considerations : 

Reasons for procedure, impracticable electrifications, opportunities in general, 

opportunities on mountain grades, electrification of established steam roads, 
Collection of Data : 

Maps and profiles, train service, steam locomotives, freight and passenger cars, 

operating expenses, limits on the work. 
Deductions from Data : 

Analysis of the operation of the road, energy required for trains. 
Cost of Electrification : 

Power plants, transmission and contact lines, substations, electric motors, 

cost of steam equipment of steam roads. 
Cost of Electrifications Completed. 
Errors to be Avoided : 

Amount of equipment, freight service, number of substations, maintenance of 

both steam and electric service, lack of appreciation of steam railroad problems. 
Electrical Engineers for Railroads. 
Literature. 



496 



CHAPTER XIV. 

PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION. 

IN GENERAL. 

The electrification of railroads demands a consideration of the rea- 
sons for utilizing electric power, and requires information on the methods, 
systems, and practice by which definite results have been accomplished. 
This information has already been gathered, in some measure, in the 
previous chapters. 

ESSENTIAL CONSIDERATIONS. 

Economy is the primary consideration for procedure in electrification. 
The objects in view in electrification are to save coal rather than to gain 
relief from smoke; to accelerate a train economically, not at two-thirds 
cut-off; to gain speed rapidly so as to reduce the losses in braking which 
accompany high maximum speeds; to avoid friction and excessive 
weights; to prevent waste in steam when heavy freight trains are hauled 
up the grades at good speed; to use rotary motion in place of reciprocating, 
because track pounding is decreased; to reduce the cost of labor and 
maintenance per ton-mile; to render efficient service at the congested 
freight and passenger terminals; to save time in classifying of cars; to 
keep the yards cleared so that the freight does not accumulate; and 
finally to furnish all practical facilities for safe and concentrated working 
at terminals. . 

Gross and net earnings are radically increased when electric trans- 
portation methods are used, which fact cannot be questioned after a con- 
sideration of the results which were outlined in Chapter III. Financial 
considerations always demand first attention. Electrification hinges on 
the extent of the returns which can be made from a given expenditure. 

Financial reasons are generally combined with physical. Electricity 
has already furnished a solution of difficult and important transportation 
problems. Developments and applications have now furnished the 
financial experience needed. Electric passenger trains, to be profitable, 
require unlimited tractive effort for rapid acceleration and for grades. 
Suburban trains, interurban roads, and local railways, which are feeders 
and distributors for railroads, have increased their net earnings by the 
adoption of electric service and methods. Electric power for tunnel 
service, with steep grades and heavy traffic, furnishes both the physical 
and the economical results desired, and these results are very much 
better than with steam traction. 

32 497 



498 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Physical and financial advantages of electric power for train haulage 
were discussed at length in Chapter III, and the physical and financial 
advantages of motor cars and of electric locomotives were considered in 
Chapters VI and VII. 

The reasons for the electrification of tunnels, subways, and terminals 
are obvious. Elevated roads now operate heavier electric trains, at 
higher speeds over light supporting structures. Motor-car trains have 
quickly superseded suburban steam trains, because the former are more 
flexible, and frequent stops can be made with economy. Water power 
was a factor in the electrification of roads near Albany, Buffalo, Grand 
Rapids, Minneapolis, Spokane, Seattle, Denver, Los Angeles, in the 
mountains, and elsewhere. The solution of many of the problems, in ^^' 
real heavy transportation, required an increase in capacity, i. e., drawbar 
pull and speed. The reason why electric traction for trunk lines is to rs, 
follow, for freight and passenger traffic, is because electric traction has 
inherent physical advantages, and can handle traffic comparable with 
existing or heavier service with higher economy. 

A broad policy exists on the part of almost every railroad to use rs, 
improved methods in transportation- wherever it pays. 



Reasons for Procedure in Electrification are now Summarized : 

Economy of operation on trunk lines. Saving in power, wages, and maintenance. 

Cheaper power from fuels; lignite and culm fields, low grades* of coal. Blast furnace 
or coke gas for engines. Natural gas for boilers, or for engines. 

Cheaper power from water power, for mountain grades and ordinary roads. 

Capacity, drawbar pull and speed, for rapid transit and dense passenger service. 

Economy and capacity on mountain grade railroads and in heavy freight haulage. 

Smoke nuisance, exhaust noise, and fire risk avoided; tunnel and switching railways. 
Elevated railways in large cities. Suburban and resident district railways. 
Mill, factory, dock, and industrial railways. 

Compulsory, for safety and comfort, at railroad terminals and yards. 

Passenger and freight traffic on city streets, with electric motive power. 

Financial situation relieved. Lost traffic regained; new business induced. 

Prevention of competition; control of railway situations. 

Policy of general improvement, local or national; water power vs. importation of 
foreign coal; standardization for state railways in Europe; saving in time of 
passengers and hastening of freight; passenger service made attractive and 
enjoyable. 

Demand for frequent and rapid suburban service, ''resulting both from the increase 
in population and the education which the public has now received; and the 
necessity for increasing the carrying capacity and speed of trains, without 
excessive capital expenditure." Dawson: re. London, Brighton & South Coast. 

Promotion and development of roads, lands, water powers, etc. 

These, then, are the reasons which cause rai road engineers to study 
the subject of electrification attentively, to think out the best methods 
of procedure in the application of electric power and, at an opportune 
time, to act for railroads. Specific cases are now cited. 



of 



PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 499 
REASONS FOR ELECTRIFICATION OF STEAM RAILROADS. 



Name of railroad. 



Route 
miles. 



Total 
mileage. 



Primary or important reason for use 
of electric power. 



Boston & Maine: 

Concord & Manchester Division . . 

Hoosac Tunnel 

New York, New Haven & Hartford: 
New York Division 

Harlem River Yards 

Manhattan Elevated 

New York Central 



Long Island 

Pennsylvania Tunnel & Terminal . 



West Jersey & Seashore . 



Delaware & Hudson. 
Albany Southern . . . . 
West Shore R. R. . . . 



Erie R. R 

Lackawanna & Wyoming 

Wilkes-Barre & Hazelton 

Baltimore & Ohio 

Baltimore & Annapolis 

Grand Trunk Ry., St. Clair Tunnel. 
Michigan Central, Detroit Tunnel . . 

Toledo & Western 

Cincinnati, George. & Portsmouth, . 

Illinois Traction Company 

East St. Louis & Suburban 

Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul 

Chicago, Burlington & Quincy 

Colorado & Southern 



Rock Island Southern 

Fort Dodge, Des Moines & Southern 
Waterloo, Cedar F. & Northern ... 

Salt Lake & Ogden 

Spokane & Inland Empire 

Great Northern, Cascade 

Northern Pacific, Everett Division. 

Northwestern Pacific 

Southern Pacific 

Pacific Electric 

Havana Central, Cuba. 

Mersey Ry., England 

North-Eastem Ry., England 

Lancashire & Yorkshire 



2.3 



London, Brighton & South 

Coast. 

Swedish State 93 

Paris- Versailles 11 

French Southern Ry 65 

Bernese Alps Ry., 52 

Prussian State Rys 

Swiss Federal Rys i 38 

Italian State Rys 141 



17 


30 


8 


22 


35 


100 


13 


63 


38 


119 


44 


150 


62 


164 


15 


95 


75 


154 




245 


38 


62 


44 


114 


37 


40 


25 


50 


31 


34 


4 


7 


25 


35 


4 


12 


6 


19 


59 


84 


41 


57 


460 


560 


20 


181 


6 


20 


4 


4 


64 


74 


52 


82 


70 


141 


30 


100 


35 


55 


204 


287 


4 


6 


9 


10 


20 


34 


30 


100 


40 


600 


50 


73 


5 


10 


37 


82 


40 


82 



62 

110 

16 

75 

55 

108 

I ^2 

I 250 



Interurban traffic. 

Limiting point of service, Fitchburg Division. 

Compulsory for terminal. Economy for 
dense, long-distance traffic. 

Economy in yard service. 

Lost traffic to regain; economy in operation. 

Compulsory for terminal service; economy 
of land; better service. 

Dense local traffic. Economy of operation. 

Tunnel grades; city terminals; suburban traf- 
fic. 

Increased earnings for a long route. To fore- 
stall a proposed parallel competitor. 

"Largely a protective measure." 

Water power; interurban lines. 

"Recognizing the evils of competition." 

Utilization of existing tracks. 

Competition prevented. 

Grades; development of a new road. 

Grades; development of a new road. 

Tunnel and terminal service. 

Many reasons. See Chapter XV. 

Tunnel and terminal service. 

Tunnel; saving in time. 

Inteiurban freight service. 

Improvement of road. 

New business and interurban traffic. 

Coal haulage to and in St. Louis. 

Suburban traffic to Evanston, Illinois. 

Grades on Black Hills Division. 

Use of water power for grades on Denver 
Division. 

Utilization of waste coal. 

General. 

General. 

General serviceability. 

Land development; water power. 

Tunnel. 

Competition prevented. 

General serviceability. 

Heavy suburban traffic. 

Heavy interurban traffic. 

Freight haulage. 

Tunnel and to regain traffic. 

Increase in capacity. 

To regain lost traffic; to furnish frequent and 
economical service. 

Competition; loss of traffic. Capacity for 
dense traffic. Best use of investment. 

Water power; economy in freight haulage. 

Tunnel grades near terminals. 

Water power; mountain freight haulage. 
j Water power; mountain grade haulage. 

General economic development. 

Water power; grades; tunnels. 

Water power; mountain grade haulage. 



In each case there wa.s a combination of reasons. 



500 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Impracticable electrifications must be considered, to avoid waste of 
money and effort, particularly so while there are so many good oppor- 
tunities for the advantageous application of electric traction. Im- 
practicable cases, when analyzed, are generally shown to be" those 
wherein the investment for the large electrical equipment cannot be 
used regularly. 

Traffic may not be sufficiently heavy to give body to the load. 
There is no economy operating on a short line; or of making large in- 
vestments for a small amount of work. 

Railroads must have 10 trains each way per day or haul 1,000,000 
ton-miles daily, per 100-mile division, before electrification is practical. 

Electric power should not be used on a small scale, ^'to try it out," 
because economies to overbalance the fixed charges cannot be effected; 
nor is it necessary any longer to experiment with equipment. Skilled 
and experienced men are now available. Calculations can be predicted 
with accuracy as in other lines of engineering. 

Traffic may not be sufficiently regular. Electrification for passen- 
ger service alone, from the terminal of a city of less than 300,000 people, 
is financially impracticable. The freight and switching service should 
always be added so that during the 24 hours of the day, the entire in- 
vestment may be utilized steadily. Traffic cannot be regular with short 
roads. Electrification is impracticable for an intermittent traffic, 
badly bunched business, heavy Sunday excursion and light week-day 
service, infrequent and heavy passenger and freight service; or for ir- 
regular train service on long grades. Large power plants, with good 
load factors, are necessary for economy. Above all, the powxr plant, 
power transmission lines, and electrical equipment must be utilized 
regularly to reduce the fixed charges per ton-mile or per train-mile. 

Energy required for trains may not be capable of being generated at 
a reasonably low sum per kilowatt hour, on account of the traffic limita- 
tions, a low load factor, lack of condensing water, etc. 

Opportunities generally arise for the use of electric power, or are 
favored by those situations and conditions where work can be done ef- 
fectively and economically, and where the fixed charges on the added 
electrical equipment are a small portion of the operating expenses. 
Opportunities of this nature are developed on: 

City, suburban, and interstate railways. 

Interurban roads on an existing railroad right-of-way. 

Railroads with light bridges or structural limitations. 

Dense traffic with frequent light or heavy trains. 

Roads which are worked up to their track capacity. 

Locations where cheap water power or coal or gas is available. 

Roads which use large quantities of high-priced coal. 



PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 501 

Roads \Yhere the water supply for locomotives is bad or expensive. 

Branch roads when electric power is used on the main line. 

Parallel roads, already built to obtain and retain new traffic. 

New lines, to prevent competition or to lower rates. 

Situations where by-products of electrification can be saved as when 
the railroad load can be smoothed out by the use of live steam for power, 
pumping, light, production of ice, etc., and of exhaust steam for heating, 
during the hours of non-peak load. 

Terminal railways to reduce the number of train movements; to 
handle traffic in materially less time; to prevent congestion; to utilize 
the expensive real estate efficiently, to superimpose tracks, offices, and 
warehouses, over the tracks, sub-tracks, etc. 

Roads which can carry out electrification on a large scale. 

Wherever more than 250 h. p. are required per mile of single track, 
the electric locomotive can replace the steam locomotive with decided 
economy and advantage. Leonard. 

Power equipment used per mile of single track, given in a table on 
Steam-Electric Power Plant Installations, page 427, for many railroads 
is over 1000 h. p. per mile of single track. 

Mountain -grade electrification deserves consideration where there is 
heavy traffic because of the physical and financial advantage to be 
gained. The work done up to this time has been limited. 

Steam locomotives of the largest size, including many Mallet com- 
pounds, are now used. In mountain grade service the steam locomo- 
tive is unsatisfactory because: 

a. Weight per h. p. output is twice that of electric locomotives 
and the excessive weight destroys track, trestles, embankments, and 
roadbed. Curves must be well crowned to prevent a runaway train 
from jumping the curves and, at slow speeds, the well-oiled flanges 
of drivers, on 10- to 14-foot rigid wheel bases, grind hard against the 
rail head. Curves are soon destroyed by this friction. 

b. Complications exist in articulated locomotives with their steam 
connections and the multiplicity of mechanical parts. The friction 
at operating speeds is high and exceeds 30 pounds per ton. Many 
Mallets will not drift down a 1.7 per cent, grade. 

c. Maintenance expenses per train-mile are enormously high, and 
are out of all proportion to the advantage gained. Excessive tempera- 
ture strains are produced in the fire boxes and tubes. The cost of 
maintenance in winter is from 15 to 35 per cent, greater than the cost 
in summer. The great length, weight, and vibration result in enormous 
strains, followed by leakage and breakage, and time lost on the road. 

d. Speed is slow because the capacity to haul heavy trains is lim- 
ited by the square feet of heating surface in the boiler. Traffic is de- 



502 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

layed by slow speeds, the mileage is reduced, and the equipment, track, 
and cars are thereby increased. The investment is not utilized to best 
advantage. The 250-ton Mallet, with two firemen, and an overloaded 
furnace, hauls only 800 to 900 tons trailing load up 2.2 per cent, grades 
and then at a speed of only 10 to 8 miles per hour. 

e. Radiation of heat and the stand-by losses, on the cold windy 
divisions, require a large proportion of the total coal used. The loco- 
motives work hard for a short time and are then idle for many hours. 

f. Economy of Mallet compound steam locomotives in mountain 
service is low because the steam is used at about two-thirds stroke, and 
because condensation and friction are excessive. See data on Southern 
Pacific and other Mallet locomotives in Chapter II. 

Electric locomotives in mountain grade service are: 

a. Light in total weight, and in weight per linear foot. 

b. Simple in construction, and somewhat automatic in operation. 

c. Maintained at a much lower cost per train-mile run, because of 
fewer parts and lower friction. 

d. Efficient, in that there are no stand-by losses. 

e. Economical in the use of steam at the central steam power plant; 
economical in the cost of power when cheap low-grade coals are available, 
or when water power is available in the mountains. 

f. Safe in tunnel operation, safety being promoted by regeneration 
of electrical energy in braking on the down-grade. Wrecks are fewer. 

g. Capable of hauling the heaviest trains, not at 8 m. p. h., but at 15; 
not with one 250-ton locomotive concentrated at the head or behind 
the train, but with two 125-ton locomotives controlled by one engineman 
and his assistant. While the capacity of the steam locomotive is greatly 
reduced by cold windy weather, the capacity of the electric locomotive is 
increased. Capacity, light weight, and economy are combined. 

Operation on mountain grades and on ordinary but long grades 
is an important matter, because the cost of steam service is relatively 
high. Economies can be effected; the congestion can be avoided; the 
single track can be used to better advantage; the cost of track and loco- 
motive maintenance can be reduced; the wrecks can be decreased; and 
the high wages paid per ton-mile can be reduced. The limit on the loads 
to be hauled, and on the speed, can be placed at the electric power plant. 
Railroads on heavy mountain grades can adopt electric traction to best 
advantage, when the traffic is heavy and frequent, and the grades are long 
and steep. 

The following table compiled from an Interstate Commerce Report, 
and from other sources, shows the character and the importance of the 
work on mountain grades. 



PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 



503 



FREIGHT HAULAGE BY STEAM LOCOMOTIVES ON MOUNTAIN GRADES. 



Name of railroad. 



Name of 
mountain or grade. 



Length 
in miles. 



Grade 
in%. 



Trains 
daily. 



Tonnage 
per train. 



M. p. h. on 
down- 
grade. 



Baltimore & Ohio .... 

Buffalo, Rochester & 
Pittsburg. 

Delaware, Lackawan- 
na & Western. 

Erie R. R 

Delaware & Hudson . . 



Pennsylvania . 



Western Maryland 
Chesapeake & Ohio. 



Philadelphia & Read. 
Duluth, Missabe & 

Northern. 
Chicago, St. Paul, 

Minneapolis & Omaha 
Chicago, Milwaukee 

& St. Paul. 
Great Northern 



Sand Patch, Pa 

Grafton, W. Va. . . 

Bingham 

W. Valley 

Clark Summit 

Pocono 

Cowanda 

Big Shanty 

Carbondale-Forest C 
Forest City Ararat. . 
Ararat-Oneonta . . 

Bellwood 

Tryone 

Dunlo 

Gallitzen 



Pottsville. 



Cumberland 

Thurmond-Ronce- 

verte. 
Ron. -Allegheny . . . 

Flackville 

Proctor Hill | 



Hudson, Wise 
St. Paul 



.7 

.3 

.0 

.6 

6.4 

6.0 

14.0 

75.0 

8.2 

10.0 

. 4.5 

11.0 

4.5 

6.5 

20.0 



Chicago, Milwaukee & 
Puget Sound. 
Colorado Midland 



St. Paul. . . 
Butte Hill. . 

Cascade 

Bitter Root . 



Denver & Rio Grande 



Hagerman . 
UtePass.. 
Bingham . . 



Soldier Summit. 



Atchinson, Topeka & 
Santa Fe. 



Svmny Side I 

Tennessee Pass . . . . i 

Tehachapi ' 

Glorieta j 

Raton Mt I 



Canadian Pacific 

Northern Pacific 



Phoenix. . . 

Livingston . 

Helena. . . . 

Helena. . . . 
i Missoula. . . 

Cascade 

i Cascade ... 
Butte, Anaconda & P. Butte 



13.0 
5.7 
6.0 

1.0 

1.0 

1.0 
12.0 
32.0 

4.0 

38.2 

9.5 

9.0 

2.0 

14.0 

. 7.0 

18.0 

10.0 

21.0 

30.8 

9.8 

13.0 

15.0 

4.0 

11.0 

16.0 

3.0 

15.0 

10.0 

6.0 

4.8 



1.70 
2.20 
50 
70 
48 
52 
50 
2.45 
1.36 
0.81 
1.00 
3.31 
3.00 
3.50 
1.70 
to 2.38 
3.13 
1.19 
1.70 
.36 

.57 
3.50 
2.00 



1.50 

1.65 
2.20 
2.20 
2.00 

3.13 
3.50 
2.00 
4.00 
2.20 
4.00 
2.46 
2.50 
3.00 
2.20 
3.00 
3.50 
2.20 
4.50 
2.20 
2.20 
1.61 
2.20 
2.20 
1.42 
2.50 



60-100 
20-40 
60-80 



60-100 



60-100 



15-22 

30 

150 
10 
10 



16 
12 
10 
10 
12 
18 
18 
20 



1800-3000 
1800-2000 
2250-2500 
1500-1800 
2000-2300 
1500-2500 
1000-1400 
1600-1750 
1400-1500 



1400-2200 
1600-2000 
1500-1700 
1500-2000 



700-1000 



3000 
1000-1500 
15,000,000 tons 
per year. 
1500-2000 

900-1500 

1300-1520 
1200-1850 
1000-1500 



760 
500 
600 



1800 

650 

850 

1800 

800 

1000-1500 

950-1000 

1000 

1000 

500-800 

1400-1600 

1600-1800 

1600-1800 

1600-1800 

1000-1500 

1000-1500 

1000-1100 



504 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



FREIGHT HAULAGE BY STEAM LOCOMOTIVES ON SOME MOUNTAIN 
GRADES. (Continued.) 


Name of railroad. 


Name of 
mountain or grade. 


Length 
in miles. 


Grade 
in%. 


Trains 
daily. 


Tonnage 
per train. 


M, p. h. on 
down- 
grade. 


Butte, A. and Pacific. 


Butte- Anaconda . . . 

Anaconda 

Rock 


8.0 

6.7 

Many. 

18.0 

9.3 

30.0 

70.0 

87.0 


.41 
1.16 
2.20 
3.30 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
1.50 


8 

18 

Few, 

Many. 

Many 
Many 


3400-3600 
1900-2000 


12-14 
6-10 






800-1200 

900-1400 

800-1500 

1050-1300 

1000-1200 


11-12 




Shasta 

Tehachapi 

Sierra Nevada 

Roseville-Summit. . 


12-15 

14-20 

14-20 

7-10 



Speeds noted are from trainmen's time tables and show the maxiumm allowed on the down- 
grade, which speed is about one-half of the up-grade speed. Tonnage is the ordinary freight train 
load behind the head locomotive. Two locomotives are common per train. 

See profile of grades of important railroads in Ry. Age Gazette, July 21, 1911, p. 111. 

Electrification of established steam roads can be accomplished to much 
better advantage by steam railroads than by new, independent, parallel 
electric roads, for the following seven reasons: 

Money can be borrowed by steam roads at lower rates, on a large scale, 
and with minimum delay when an existing road banks its reputation, 
past and future, on the outcome. 

Traffic already exists and haulage of freight and passenger trains can 
be clearly estimated. The economies to be effected are more definitely 
predetermined. The records of traffic and interchange are actual, and 
what is needed for haulage can be carefully studied. 

Roadbed is completed, and electrification s'mply means the better use 
of the investment, yet without complication for either steam or electric 
service. Bridges, terminals, and buildings may be utilized. 

Car equipment is already in service, and ready for haulage with elec- 
tric locomotives. 

Organization is perfected, and experienced railroad managers, super- 
intendents, dispatchers, and well-trained employees govern; not a set of 
new, unorganized railroad men. 

Investment is required for electrical equipment only, or approxi- 
mately 20 per cent, of the total cost of the existing steam railroad. A 
new road must obtain a complete outfit — terminal, right-of-way, roadbed, 
equipment, offices, organization. 

In competition, the steam road which uses electric traction can get 
and also keep the business from new or old competing roads. 

COLLECTION OF DATA FOR PROCEDURE IN ELECTRIFICATION. 

In the engineering work for the electrification of roads, the chief 
engineer, the electric traction engineer, the superintendent of motive 



PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 505 

power, and others, usually make a preliminary report to the manager or 
president on the use of electric power for train haulage over a division. 

The advantages of electric traction are not argued by these men. 
They have already in mind, for the specific case under consideration, 
some definite physical results to be gained, or which are needed, to 
facilitate the handling of traffic. 

The work to be done is first outlined, and the limits and character 
of the w^ork are specified. In the procedure which follows, steps are 
taken to determine, in a logical and definite way, the cost of the elec- 
trification and the extent of the financial advantage to be gained. 

Data are at once required for a study of the situation. Most of these 
are available at the railroad office, but some of the facts and working 
conditions must be obtained from inspections along the division; and 
the valuable experience of the superintendents, master mechanics, di- 
vision engineers, and others in charge of operation, maintenance of ways, 
and of construction, is to be used. If the road is not already in oper- 
ation, the data cannot be obtained directly, and conditions on many 
similar roads must be studied, and predeterminations must be made. 
The experience of other roads is always to be obtained. 

Information is generally collected on the following: 

1. Maps, profiles, locations, stations, grades, curves, general con- 
struction, rails used, trestles, bridges, tunnels, sidings, connecting points, 
yards, shops, and terminal points where engines and crews are changed. 

2. Train service, the character, volume, and direction of existing 
and new traffic, and changes which are desirable in methods of working. 
Information is needed on the number and weight of all trains; on the 
average and the maximum number of trains, on the suburban traffic, 
on the intermittent work, fish and silk trains, harvest and state fair 
lousiness; on the direction of ore, coal, grain, and lumber traffic; on the 
prevailing direction of empty cars; and on the terminal freight and 
yard service. The traffic sheets for each class of service are necessary 
to get the number of trains, number of cars, and weight of each train. 

Speeds of trains — the scheduled and maximum speeds. The speed 
records of each type of train, in each direction, are to be obtained from 
a Boyer or Shalter recorder. 

3. Characteristics of the steam locomotives used, as outlined in 
Chapter II, and a classification of the number used on each division, 
the heating surface, grate surface, coal and water used, cylinders, dis- 
tribution of weights, and the outline drawings. 

4. Freight and passenger car data, in general; and details on the 
truck equipment, if rapid transit at terminals is involved. 

5. Operating expenses, particularly the kind, source, and cost of 
different fuels, the costs per ton-mile and per train-mile for each class 



506 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

of service; the coal and water for switchers and not tests alone, but 
averages. 

6. Maintenance and repair accounts for each service. 

Other data will be required for consideration of details and for the 
particular problems considered. 

Limits must be placed on the engineering work involved, because 
a clean-cut report is required on the specific work under consideration. 
Too many details and side issues often encumber and retard progress 
in forming plans and recommendations. 

DEDUCTIONS FROM DATA. 

An analysis of the operation of the railroad must naturally follow. 
Broad problems are outlined first. The relative extent of each service, 
the relative cost, and the net profits, are always involved. The real 
nature of the business of the road, and of the traffic, is considered. 
An estimate of the rate of growth, in the past and for the future, is made. 

Lower cost of roadbed, shorter routes; increased capacity of road; 
cheaper fuels, coal mines, or water powers which are available; use of 
exhaust steam in winter; electric power and light for different shops, 
elevators, pumps, manufacturing plants; street railways, branch lines, 
and interurban feeders; joint use of power plant by several railroads, 
etc., each receives consideration. The financial and physical results 
from operation of other roads are analyzed. 

The energy required for trains now receives consideration, as out- 
lined in Chapter XL The application to the problems of the particular 
road are made, and the power data are analyzed. 

a. Train sheets are drawn for the proposed service. 

b. Tractive effort curves are made for each type of train, showing the 
friction at different speeds, the acceleration rates of different trains, 
tractive effort for grades, and for a varying number of freight cars or 
coaches in ordinary trains. Switching service receives consideration. 

c. Speeds to be used must be settled. 

d. Power required for each train is now plotted, using first m.p.h. 
and then time as the base, and mechanical h. p. as the ordinate of 
all curves. (The requirements for ordinary service exceed 100 kilowatts 
per mile of single track; and 40 watt-hours per ton-mile.) 

e. Load diagrams of all trains are plotted on one sheet with time as 
a base and h. p. or kilowatts as the ordinate. On this diagram all 
losses are added. The integrated curve is used to determine the total 
load at any time of the day, and the energy required. 

f . Distribution of the energy and the power required along the railroad 
divisions, substations, etc., now receive extended consideration. Trans- 
mission lines, feeders, contact lines, control circuits, maximum number 
of trains between substations, and other details of the electric power 
installation are tabulated and plotted. 



PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 507 

COST OF ELECTRIFICATION. 

Cost of electrification is an important subject, because the niinimum 
cost for a suitable construction, and naaximum economy in operation, are 
the essentials in transportation. High cost of electrical equipment is 
one of the chief handicaps which now prevents the general introduction 
of electric traction on railroads. The cost of individual items is quite 
valueless unless there is a clear understanding of the relation of the 
variables which are involved. 

The cost of electrification depends primarily upon the following: 

1. Density of traffic to be handled. 

2. Weight of individual train units, the speeds, the grades, the 
reliability desired, and the amount of traffic to be interchanged. 

3. Length of the route and tracks to be electrified. Length of route 
affects the load factor of the power plant and the best utilization of trans- 
mission lines. Length affects the cost of electrification per mile of track'. 

4. The electric system employed for the service. 

The cost of electric traction equipment to be used is found to vary 
between the following limits : 

A. Power plants, 25 to 40%, average 30% 

B. Lines and substations, 40 to 60%, average 50% 

C. Motor equipment, 15 to 25%, average 20% 

A. Power plants are either steam or hydroelectric, since the cost of 
gas engine equipment is now prohibitive. The cost varies from 25 to 40 
per cent, of the total cost of electrification, depending, in the plant, largely 
upon the load factor, and relative cost of B and C, which in turn vary 
largely with the distance and the density of traffic. 

Turbines, three-phase alternators, transformers, and switchboards 
require about the same type, size, voltage, and arrangement, for each 
electric system, i.e. they are not affected by the system. 

Direct-current, 600- or 1200-volt systems generally require greater 
power and more energy than other systems because of the larger losses 
in contact lines and. rotary converter substations. Single-phase systems 
may require the same kv-a. capacity and if two single-phase circuits of 
three-phase alternators are used, may require as much electric genera- 
tor capacity as other systems; but the boiler and turbine equipment 
required for the single-phase system is decidedly less than for other sys- 
tems because of the small transmission and substation losses. Three- 
phase systems require a decidedly larger power plant equipment where 
grades are encountered in ordinary rolling country on a long division of 
a common railroad, because the two efficient speeds commonly used cause 
greater fluctuations in the load. In order to decrease the amount and 
cost of equipment per ton-mile hauled, it is essential that the load factor, 
or ratio of the average load to maximum load be high. 



508 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

B. Line and substation cost for a given density of traffic varies 
from 40 to 60 per cent, of the total cost of electrification. 

Direct-current systems using 600- or 1200-volts require expensive 
contact lines and rotary converter substations, and are thus handi- 
capped for main line railroading. Substations with men to operate 
them will not be installed where they can be avoided. 

Single-phase systems without substations, or with infrequent sub- 
stations and without attendants, require the minimum expenditure. 
Overhead contact lines and feeders are decidedly less expensive than the 
overhead or third-rail contact line and feeders for a 600- or 1200-volt 
direct-current system. The impedance loss per mile at 25 cycles for one 
4/0 trolley and two 100-pound track rails is 0.55 ohms. With an ordi- 
nary train requiring 2000 kv-a. the 11,000-volt contact line loss is only 
1 per cent, per mile, per train. Therefore, for heavy traffic, the number 
and cost of transformer feeding substations and the contact line cost 
and losses are greatly reduced. 

Three-phase systems with 3000 volts between the two trolleys as used 
in Europe, or 6000 as used in the Great Northern Tunnel, are expensive 
because the cost of two trolleys, insulation, and installation are about 
twice as much as for the single-phase system. 

If catenary construction, parallel to the two trolleys, is employed for 
safety and for mechanical reasons, the cost of three-phase, two-trolley 
contact lines is greatly increased. The contact line loss with an or- 
dinary train requiring 2000 kv-a., and with 6000 volts between the 
contact lines, is 3 per cent, per mile, per train. With 3000 volts between 
the conductors, the contact line loss is 12 per cent, per mile, per train. 

The drawbar pull of three-phase motors varies inversely as the square of the 
voltage applied to the motor. For example, the small loss of 12 per cent, in the volt- 
age to the motors, which may be expected, means a decrease of 23 per cent, in the 
drawbar pull; it is therefore essential that substation transformers be frequent. 

Transformers in substations, or on locomotives and cars, cost less 
in single-phase units than in three-phase units, particularly so in large 
sizes. The use of 3000 volts directly on the stator of a large three-phase 
locomotive motor is practical with careful construction; while with 
6000 or 11,000 volts on the line, lower voltages are required on the stator 
of three-phase and single-phase motors. 

C. Motor equipments for electric traction vary in cost from 15 to 
25 per cent, of the total cost of electrification. 

Shunt-wound, direct-current motors or two-speed, three-phase motors, 
with transformers, cost most, because with constant-speed working, in 
ordinary rolling country, the maximum load is decidedly large com- 
pared with the average load. They are not used for ordinary rail- 
roading, for rapid transit, or for switching yards. 



PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 509 

The heating of motor coils varies as the square of the h. p.; that is, 
if the speed on the level were maintained on a 1 per cent, grade, three times 
as much power is required as on the level, the heating effect would be 
nine times as large, altho the duration of the period of heating might 
be reduced one-half as compared with series motors. 

Series motors, either alternating- or direct-current, protect them- 
selves, b}^ slowing down in some measure as the load increases, so that the 
output from the motor is more or less equalized, and a much smaller 
investment is required to do an average amount of work. 

The weight of three-phase motors is lower, the efficiency is 
higher, and the cost is lower per rated h.p. than other motors. Three- 
phase motors have the highest cost, per average h.p. output, in service on 
ordinary grades in ordinary rolling country. Single-phase motors will 
weigh 10 to 20 per cent, more than direct-current and three-phase 
motors, because of the extra alternating-current losses at commutators. A 
low-voltage rotor in a three-phase or in a single-phase motor does not 
increase the cost of the motor, and it increases its reliability. 

The weight of single-phase motors, assuming it to be 15 per cent, 
greater than others, may add 5 per cent, to the locomotive weight and 1 
per cent, to the train weight. In ordinary freight service it is often 
necessary to place ballast on direct-current, three-phase, and single- 
phase locomotives, otherwise the torque of the motors slips the drivers; 
but in passenger service the minimum weight of motors and locomotives 
serves to best advantage. 

Control of motors affects the cost of motors. Direct-current motors 
require resistance to reduce the voltage during acceleration, at which 
time they have a low efficiency. Three-phase two-speed motors have 
a decidedly low efficiency during acceleration. Single-phase motor 
control is efficient, simple, effective, and of low cost. 

The cost of electrification bears some relation to the total efficiency 
of the system. It is assumed that three-phase and direct-current mo- 
tors have higher efficiency than single-phase motors, but the great differ- 
ence in motor control, contact line, transformer, and transmission line 
efficiency is in favor of the single-phase system. The total equipment, 
the amount of power required, and the cost of railroad electrification 
are the least with the single-phase system in almost all cases. 

Interchange of traffic affects the cost of electrification, since some 
interchange will be required in railroading. The motor equipment 
can be chosen to run on direct-current terminal lines, and on one 
trolley of three-phase lines. The additional cost in some cases must 
be paid, in order to reap the advantages of interchange of traffic. 
y'^, The cost of electrification of steam and electric railroads is detailed, 
beginning page 512. 



510 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



The cost of equipment of steam railroads in general maybe reviewed. 
The Minnesota State Railroad Commission^ after working 30 months, 
summarized the cost of reproduction and present value of the railroads, in 
Minnesota to June 30, 1907, for 8100 miles of road and 10,437 miles of 
single track, as follows: 

COST OF STEAM RAILROADS. STATE OF MINNESOTA. 



Items listed. 



Cost of 
production. 



Present 
value. 



Land for right of way, yards, and terminals. 

Grading, clearing, and grubbing 

Protection work, rip rap, retaining walls 

Tunnels 

Cross ties and switch ties 

Ballast ■ 

Rails 



Track fastenings 

Switches, frogs, and railroad crossings 

Track laying and surfacing 

Bridges, trestles, and culverts 

Track and bridge tools 

Fences, cattle guards, and signs 

Stock yards and appurtenances 

Water stations, . 4 per cent 

Coal stations, . 2 per cent 

Station buildings and fixtures 

Miscellaneous buildings -. ' 

Steam heat and electric light plants 

General repair shops 

Shop machinery and tools 

Engine houses, turntables, cinder pits, 0.6 per cent. 

Track scales 

Dock and wharves, including coal and ore docks . . . 

Interlocking plants 

Signal apparatus 

Telegraph and telephone lines and appurtenances . . 

Adaptation and solidification of roadbed 

Engineering, superintendence, legal expenses 

Locomotives, 4 per cent 

Passenger equipment 

Freight car equipment 

Miscellaneous and marine equipment 

Freight on construction material 

Contingencies 

Stores and supplies 

Interest during construction 



Total. 



$73,201,757 

56,006,782 

2,419,292 

253,250 

17,491,500 

9,413,351 

33,010,087 

5,936,740 

1,389,363 

5,340,689 

19,567,524 

201,918 

2,768,394 

559,896 

1,606,164 

717,519 

'5,855,258 

4,344,681 

797,484 

4,123,119 

1,831,671 

2,837,988 

184,130 

6,065,496 

403,071 

155,766 

1,410,574 

11,743,007 

12,133,641 

17,090,953 

6,616,170 

46,911,106 

1,370,166 

3,635,535 

17,869,703 

5,210,010 

31,261,419 

$411,735,194 



$73,201,757 

56,006,782 

2,419,292 

215,262 

9,627,539 

9,413,351 

25,199,668 

4,543,054 

962,741 

5,340,689 

14,518,834 

151,488 

1,403,082 

349,759 

1,144,535 

507,713 

4,097,249 

3,403,171 

656,069 

2,959,019 

1,484,756 

1,874,436 

129,474 

5,392,960 

293,197 

126,217 

1,065,153 

11,743,007 

12,133,641 

12,608,422 

4,554,442 

34,068,005 

908,682 

3,635,535 

17,869,703 

5,210,010 

31,261,419 

$360,480,160 



PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 511 

' The cost of the motive-power equipment, steam locomotives, shops, 
and water and coal stations was only 5 per cent., and the value was 
only 4 per cent, of the total cost of the steam railroads. 

Cost of the motive power equipment of steam roads is thus a very 
small item in the total cost of the road. Assuming that the total cost 
of a railroad without the motive power is $38,000 per mile of single 
track, the additional cost for the motive power will be about $2000 per 
mile. 

Cost of electric motive power and equipment is usually as follows : 
Power plants $90 to $100 per kilowatt; contact lines for one, two, and 
six tracks, $4000 to $7000 per single-track mile, and for yards $1500 to 
$3000 per single-track mile; locomotives for switching, freight, and 
passenger service, $20,000 to $45,000 per unit. 

Cost of electric power plants, transmission lines, and electric locomo- 
tives, runs from $7000 to $12,000 per mile of main line track or $1,500,000 
for a 100-mile division having 125 miles of track; yet this is only 11 to 17 
per cent., to be added to the total cost of the steam railroad. 

There is then a relatively small difference between a steam and an 
electric railroad so far as first cost is concerned. 

A railroad company which considers electrification, determines 
whether the added interest, taxes, and depreciation of $700 to $1200 
per mile of track per annum will be more than compensated by an in- 
crease in gross earnings and a decrease in labor, fuel, and maintenance. 

Electrification expenditures for central power plants, and the cost with 
transformers and converters, were detailed under Steam, Gas, and Water 
Power Plants; in presenting Transmission and Contact Lines, the costs 
of these w^ere given; and under Motor-car Trains and Electric Locomotives, 
the cost of the electric motive power equipment was given. The relative 
cost of these items, and the things which influence the cost, have just 
received consideration. The power plant costs are not variable. Lines 
and substations for power distribution form about 50 per cent, of the total 
cost of electrification, and this subject therefore requires the greater study. 

The cost of electric locomotives with their power plant, shops, and 
inspection sheds is three to four times as much as the cost of steam loco- 
motives with their coal and water tender, coal and water depots, pumping 
plants, elevators, ash pits, trestle tracks, round house, and washing plant. 

The cost of electrification for a particular situation requires a study 
of the features governing the length of road, density of traffic, number 
and weight of individual train units, ratio of average to maximum power, 
distribution of power, and the number and kind of substations. 

The cost of electrification of steam railroads is being gradually reduced 
as the state of the art advances, as experimental work decreases, and as 
development charges are spread over larger amounts of equipment. 



512 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



COST OF ELECTRIFICATIONS COMPLETED OR PROPOSED. 

The actual cost of electrifications completed is extremely hard to get. 
Railroads usually keep data on cost of construction behind "stone walls." 
Estimates are often required. A statistical study is, however, of value, 
and such data as are available are presented. The roads are: 



Boston & Eastern page 512 

Boston & Albany 513 

New Haven, at Boston 514 

New York Central: 

Hudson and Harlem Div 514 

Adirondacks Divisions 515 

New York, New Haven & Hartford 516 

West Jersey and Seashore 516 

Baltimore & Annapolis Short Line 517 

Grand Trunk Ry., St. Clair Tunnel 517 

Ohio and Indiana Interurbans. . . 517 



Great Northern Ry: 

Cascade Tunnel . 518 

Spokane & Inland Empire 518 

Southern Pacific Company 519 

Paris-Orleans 519 

Paris Metropolitan 519 

German State 520 

Burgdorf-Thun 521 

Valtellina 521 

Milan- Varese 521 

Summary 522 



BOSTON & EASTERN RAILROAD, PROPOSED IN 1909. 



Item. 



Amount. Unit cost. 



Total. 



P. c. 



Power station: 

Land, wharf, etc 

Building, stack, intake 

Boilers, engines, generators. 

Other electrical equipment. 

Miscellaneous 

Transmission line 

Third rail 

Track bonding 

Transmission cable 

Terminal houses 

Converter substations, 3. . 

Cars, with 4-200-h. p. motors. 

Total 



8000 kw. 



16 miles 
41.3 miles 
41 . 3 miles 

7 miles 

2 
10,000 kw. 
50 cars 
41 . 3 miles. 



$100 
4 
20 
62 
4 
10 
4,000 
4,700 
500 
7,920 
3,000 
@ 30 
@ 16,850 
@ 55,270 






$32,000 

160,000 

4^6,000 

32,000 

80,000 J 

64,000 

194,100 

20,650 

55,340 

6,000 

300,000 

842,500 



$2,282,590 



35.0 



28.0 



37.0 



100.0 



The road is now under construction between Boston and Beverly. 



PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 513 
BOSTON AND ALBANY RAILROAD, BOSTON TERMINAL 'ZONE. 

The estimates for electrification dated October 31, 1910, included 
20.9 miles of four-track road, 9.89 miles of double-track road, and 25.0 
miles of single track, and the electrification of all passenger tracks and 
some of the local freight sidings on the main line, to handle 3,619 daily 
train-miles. The estimates embraced the following: 



Item. 


Amount. 


Unit. 


Total. 


Re. 


Power station and 
three substations. 
Transmission lines 


22,500 kw. 
11,350 kw. 


$ 


$1,859,500 

446,500 \ 

1,068,000 / 

554,400 ^ 

1,105,400 i 

336,500 ' 

350,000 J 

100,000 

940,000 \ 

60,000 / 

700,000 


24.8 


Third rail and bonding 

Electric locomotives . . 


128 miles 
16 
62 
31 


@ 8,320 
@34,650 
@ 17,829 
@10,851 


20.1 


Motor cars 




Trail coaches 


31.2 


Inspection shops 




Contingencies 






1 3 


Track and station changes. . . . 








Tidal wave basins to protect 
third rail from water. 

Automatic block-signal, recon- 
struction. 

Less credit for : 

Steam locomotives 

Coaches 






13.3 






9.3 


29 
113 

128 miles. 


14,800 
6,000 

@ 50,000 




7,520,300 

429,000 

678,000 

1,107,000 

$6,413,300 


100.0 


Total for 29 miles of route .... 





The Boston and Albany is owned by the New York Central, which 
in its report to the Joint Board of Metropolitan Improvements advocated 
the use of the third-rail, 1200-volt, direct-current system for the Boston 
terminal electrification. 



33 



514 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



NEW YORK, NEW HAVEN & HARTFORD RAILROAD. 
BOSTON TERMINAL ZONE. 

The electrification costs dated November 15, 1910, were estimated as 
follows : 



Item. 


Amount. 


Unit. 


Total. 


P. c. 


Power station 


60,000 kw. 

15.46 m. 4-track 
128.07 m. 2-track 

32.44 m. 1 -track 
111.20 m. in yard 
461.62 miles total. 


@ $100 
@40,000 
@ 20,000 
@ 7,000 
@ 4,000 
@ 8,340 


$6,000,000 


18.3 


Transmission and overhead 




single-phase contact lines. 
















Terminal, inspection, and 

repair shops. 
Light passenger locomotives 
Heavy passenger locomotives 

Multiple-unit motor cars 

Multiple-unit trail cars 

Spare parts for loco, and cars 
Automatic block signaling 


3,850,240 
1,817,000 ■ 

4,520,000 
2,205,000 ■ 
6,960,000 
5,014,100 
635,602 
1,750,000 
$32,751,942 


11.8 


113 

49 

232 

377 


@40,000 
@45,000 
@ 30,000 
@ 13,300 


64.6 






5.3 




461 . 62 miles 






Total ... 


@ 70,950 


100.0 









Note. — The high cost of electrification seems to be caused by liberal estimates per 
unit, also by no credit for 101 steam locomotives and 227 passenger coaches replaced, 
and by the heavy peak load for 5 to 6 P. M. passenger trains. If the freight traffic 
had been added, the cost per ton-mile would have been radically decreased. 

The total daily train mileage .was estimated as 17,286 or 2.5 times that of the New 
York Central electric zone. 



NEW YORK CENTRAL, MOHAWK & MALONE DIVISION, ESTIMATE. 



Item. 


Amount. 


Unit. 


Total. 


P. c. 


Power station 


12,390 kw. 


@ $95.00 


$1,232,000 
2,860,000 \ 

630,000 / 
1,500,000 

934,000 

7,156,000 
436,000 


17.2 


Transmission and contact lines 




Substations 




@ 17.50 
@ 50,000. 00 


48.8 


Electric locomotives 

Miscellaneous 


Thirty 


20.9 
13.1 










Sum 


100.0 


Less steam locomotives 










.... . ... 

253 miles 


@, 26,561. 00 




Net total 


$6,720,000 




• 





PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 



515 



NEW YORK CENTRAL, CARTHAGE & ADIRONDACKS DIVISION, 

ESTIMATE. 



Power station, steam 

Transmission and contact line . 


1,230 kw. 


@ $95.00 


$117,100 
690,000 \ 
105,000 j 
200,000 
166,900 


9,2 


Substations, 16 


3,000 kw. 
4 


@ 17.50 
@ 50,000. 00 


62.2 


Electric locomotives . . 


15 6 


Miscellaneous 


13 










Sum 


1,279,000 . 
32,000 


100 


Less steam locomotives 


4 

61 miles 


@ 8,000.00 
@ 20,443. 00 




Net total 


$1,247,000 









NEW YORK CENTRAL, NEW YORK « 


fe OTTAWA DIVISION, ESTIMATE. 


Power station 


840 kw. 


@ $95.00 


$80,000 
678,000 \ 
105,000 / 
200,000 
159,000 

1,222,000 
26,000 


6 5 


Transmission and contact line . 




Substations 




@ 17.50 
@ 50,000. 00 


64.1 


Electric locomotives 


4 


16 4 


Miscellaneous 


13 


SiiTn 






100 


Less steam locomotives 










60 miles 


@ 19,934. 00 




Net total 


$1,196,000 









NEW YORK CENTRAL, ADIRONDACK MOUNTAINS DIVISIONS. 



Item. 



Amount. 



Unit. 



Total. 



P. c. 



Power station, steam I 15,000 kw. @ $95.00 $1,425,000 

Transmission and contact line . ' ' 4,228,000 "(^ 



Substations 
Electric locomotives . 
Sundry 



38 



Sum 

Less steam locomotives. 

Net total 



@ 17.50 
@ 50,000. 00 



42 



@11,762 



840,000 / 
1,900,000 
1,259,000 

9,652,000 
494,000 



374 miles i @24,486.00 j $9,158,000 



14.8 

52.5 

19.7 
13.0 

100.0 



Two 60, 000- volt transmission circuits with (4 No. wires) and one 11,000-volt 
contact line circuit. 

"The enormous cost of electric equipment and the heavy increase in annual 
operating cost are due to the fact that the service proposed is totally unsuited for 
economical electric operation, long hauls, and infrequent heavy units being diametric- 



516 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



ally opposite to that required for successful electrification." E. B. Katte, Chief 
Engineer of Electric Traction, New York Central Railroad, in a report of New York 
Public Service Commission, Second District, 1909. 

The estimate is high, at $11,000 per mile for transmission and contact Une; and 
for 38 electric locomotives to replace 42 steam locomotives. 

NEW YORK CENTRAL, HUDSON AND HARLEM DIVISIONS. 

No data as yet available. See totals on page 542. 

NEW YORK, NEW HAVEN & HARTFORD. 
The Electrification Costs on the New York Division to 1911 Approximated. 



Item, 



Amount. 



Unit. 



Total. 



Per cent. 



Power station ^ 12,000 kw. 



Overhead construction, 4- 
to 6-track bridges. 
Feeders and track bonding. 

Passenger locomotives 

Freight locomotives 

Motor cars 

Signals, yards, sundry 



22 miles 

88 miles 
41 

2 
4 



Total for 22 miles of route. 



100 miles 



@ $100 
@37,000 

@ 342 
@45,000 
@75,000 
@12,500 



,$50,000 



$1,200,000 
814,000 

30,000 

1,845,000 

150,000 

50,000 J 
911,000 

$5,000,000 



24.0 
16.3 



41.5 

18.2 
100.0 



The estimate does not include the Harlem River-New Rochelle yards, 12.13 
miles of 4- to 6-track road, the Stamford-New Canaan branch, the New York, West 
Chester & Boston, or the Stamford-New Haven extension. 

WEST JERSEY AND SEASHORE RAILROAD. 



Item. 



Amount. 



Unit. 



Total. 



P. c. 



Power station: 

Bldg., stack, coal handling , 

Equipment 

Transmission line, 6 No. 1 . . , 
Substation, buildings 



Equipment 



Contact line: 

Third rail, unprotected . . . 

Trolley, temporarily 

Track bonding 

Cars, wood, 47 tons, 480 h.p., 
Cars, steel, 52 tons, 480 h.p., 
Car repair and in sheds 



8,000 kw. 
70 m. 
7 
17,000 kw. 

132 

20 



1906. 
1906. 



93 
15 



Total 150 miles. 



@ $80 
@ 3,455 

i 

@ 25 

@ 4,235 
@ 4,120 
@ 648 
@12,214 
@19,500 



26,300 



$354,900 

640,000 

241,500 

72,000 

419,560 

557,636 
80,500 

102,659 
1,135,900 

292,500 
46,674 



$3,943,829 



25.2 



37.4 



37.4 



1000 



PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 517 



BALTIMORE & ANNAPOLIS SHORT 


LINE. 


ESTIMATE. 






Item. 


Amount. 


Unit. 


Total. 


Per cent. 


1 D. c. 

! ■ 


A. c. 


D. c. 


A. c. 


Power station .... 






$21,000 
65,000 

15,000 
39,000 


$62,000 
36,000 

3,000 

8,000 
11,000 

75,000 
149,300 


5.2 


18.0 
















(6 No. 2 wires). 
Substation buildings 










" 








@17.50 kw. 












Bonding 






18,000 
132,000 

107,300 

$397,300 


^67.8 
27.0 




) 38.6 


Third rail 


33 miles 
33 miles 


@$4000 
@ 2273 




Catenary trolley, poles, and wire. . . . 


43.4 




33 miles 
33 miles 


©12,040 
©10,440 


100 






$344,300 












100.0 







GRAND TRUNK RAILWAY— ST. CLAIR TUNNEL. ESTIMATED. 



Item. 


Amount. 


Unit. 


Total. 


P. c. 


Power station 

Contact line 


2500 kw. 

12 miles 

6 units 


@ $100 
@ 5,000 
@ 26,500 


$250,000 

60,000 

159,000 

31,000 


50. 
12. 


Locomotive 66-ton 


32. 


Sundry . 


6. 




12 miles 


$41,666 




Total 


$500,000 


100 



The transmission line is short. Single track is used except at termin- 
als, where tracks are 4 to 10 deep. 



OHIO AND INDIANA INTERURBAN RAILWAYS. 

About 5000 miles of track have been built in these two states. 
Gross earnings are 29.5 cents and operating expenses 15.8 cents per 
car-mile. 

Cost of roadbed was $16,000; power plants, $2,200; transmission lines 
and substations, $3,000; trolley line, $1,600; cars $1,200; general expenses, 
$1,000; total $25,000, per mile. Electrification cost was thus: Power 
station, 24.4 per cent.; transmission lines and substations, 33.3 per cent.; 
trolley line, 17.9 per cent.; cars, 13.3 per cent.; and sundry, 11.1 per cent. 
This average, from 20 typical roads, was obtained in 1909. Darlington. 



518 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

GREAT NORTHERN RAILWAY, CASCADE TUNNEL. ESTIMATE. 



Item. 



Amount. Unit. 



Total. 



P. c. 



Hydro-electric power plant 

Transmission line, six No. wires, 

33,000-volt. 

Overhead line material, O. B. Co 

Overhead Hne, balance of material and 

erection. 

Locomotives, 1900-h. p. each 

Sundry items 



7500 kw. 
30 miles 



$160 $1,200,000 
2,000 60,000 



Total, estimate. 



6 miles |@, 2,000 j 12,000 
6 miles |@ 3,500 i 21,000 



4 units 



6 miles 



@ 40,000 i 160,000 
167,000 



@ $270,000 



74 



10 
10 



$1,620,000 100 



This makes a large total per mile. If the electric zone is extended, 
the investment per mile will be decidedly smaller. 



SPOKANE & INLAND EMPIRE RAILROAD. ESTIMATES. 



Cost of electrification compared. 



Power plant, 6000 kilowatts 

Transmission lines (60, 000- volt) 

Feeders 

Bonding of rails 

Trolley fine (two No. 0000 conductors) 

Trolley Hne (catenary construction) 

Transformer substations 

Frequency changing stations 

Rotary converter substations 

Electrical equipment of rolling stock 

Total for 162 miles of track 

Saving of single-phase over direct-current. 



Direct 
current. 



$122,640 

474,600 

40,150 

343,100 



338,548 
259,600 



$1,578,638 



Alternating 
current. 



$140,000 
19,800 
40,150 



306,600 
156,988 
106,400 



286,250 



$1,056,188 
$522,450 



Electrification plans were based on 146 miles of main line, or 162 miles of track, 
and the use of either the 3-phase, 60-cycle, direct-current, 600- volt rotary converter 
system; or the 3-phase, 60-cycle, motor-generator, single-phase, 25-cycle, 6600- volt 
system. 

Power at 60 cycles was available at an electric lighting plant but required that 
four 1000-kilowatt frequiency changers be used, consisting of 3-phase, 60-cycle, 
4000- volt induction motors coupled to 25-cycle, revolving field, single-phase genera- 
tors. Storage batteries were also added to minimize the railway load peaks. 



PROCEDURE IK RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 



519 



If the frequency changing station had not been used an additional $106,400 
would have been saved. Changes were made after the contract for the equipment 
was closed, and it is now considered that the saving effected by the single-phase 
system was in the immediate neighborhood of $800,000. The generation of energy at 
25 cycles at a new water power plant will decrease the unit cost of electrification. 

SOUTHERN PACIFIC COMPANY, ALAMEDA, CALIFORNIA: 1910. 

12-645-h. p. Parker boilers @ $17 $131,580 

2-5000-kw. Westinghouse tarbo-generators @ 38 380,000 

2 surface condensers @ 23,000 46,000 

44 multiple-unit cars, with 4-125-h.p. motors . . @ 8500 $374,000 

6-750 kw., 600-volt, rotary counters @ .... 

The work will not be completed until late in 1911. 



PARIS-ORLEANS RAILWAY: 1904. 



Item. 



Amount. Unit. 



Total. 



P. c. 



Power station T 2000 kw. 

Transmission Hnes \ 21 . 18 miles. 

Transformer-converter substations . . 3 

Contact line 37 . 29 miles. 

Electric locomotives I 111 

Motor cars 5 ) 

Miscellaneous 

Total 37 . 29 miles. 




@40,000 



$412,000 I 
104,000 I 
215,000 \ j 
463,000 I ' 

280,000 I 

16,000 I 



11,490,000 



27.6 



52.5 



19.2 



100.0 



PARIS-METROPOLITAN RAILWAY: 1904. 



Power stations, three 

Track equipment 

Substations, four 

Transmission line 

Rolhng stock 

Miscellaneous 

Total for 15.42 miles of track. . . @ 340,000 



2,405,800 
218,800 
505,800 
276,000 J 

1,693,200 \ 
150,400 / 



$5,250,000 



46.0 
19.0 

35.0 
100^0" 



Note the high cost of power stations. Data of 1904' are not valuable. 



GERMAN STATE RAILWAYS. 



German engineers have been actively engaged in the study of electric 
power for the Prussian State Railroad, which includes 21,016 miles of 
single track. 



520 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



The present electrification plans embrace the following: 

Central power plants, 125 miles apart, interconnected to allow a 
mutual rendering of assistance in case one is disabled. 

Transmission line voltage, 50,000; transformers, at intervals of 25 
miles along the line, 3000 kilowatt for single track and 5000 kilowatt 
for double track. Contact line voltage, 10,000. 

Power required for trains, per mile of double track, 200 kilowatt. 

Power required for trains, per mile of single track, 120 kilowatt. 

Electric locomotives to aggregate 64 per cent, of the number, and to 
have 73.8 per cent, of the empty weight, of steam locomotives. Number 
of electric locomotives required, 955 at $16,000 each; or $. 1834 per pound. 
Steam locomotive? now cost $.1186 per pound. 



Estimates on cost. 


Per mile 
single track. 


Per mile, 
double track. 


Electrification. 
Total cost. 


Per 
cent. 


No power plant. Would cost. 








20 


Transmission line 

Transformer equipment 

Contact line, 21,016 miles. . . . 


$1530 

862 
3830 


$2490 
1436 


$42,500,000 1 
25,000,000 !> 
167,500,000 
152,500,000 


50 


Locomotives and motor cars. . 7358 




30 











Estimates by Pb. Pforr. See. U. S. Consular Report, No. 3411, 1909. 

ESTIMATE ON COST OF OPERATION OF GERMAN RAILROADS. 



Items. 


Proposed 
electric 
service. 


Present 
steam, 
service. 


Steam power 3,481,000,000 kw-hr., @, .833 

(including fixed charge on investment). 
Depot service oil and waste, and miscellaneous . . . 


$29,000,000 

8,648,000 



10,950,000 

8,500,000 

11,750,000 

4,250,000 

1,250,000 




$26,000,000 
13,398,000 


Minor accounts, loss by fire in forests 


1,750,000 


Enginemen and firemen on trains 


15,950,000 


Maintenance of rolling stock 


10,500,000 


Added interest, $235,000,000 @5 per cent 

Maintenance of lines @ 2 per cent 

Maintenance of transformers @ 5 per cent 

Maintenance of water and coal stations 








1,250,000 







The saving in coal alone is estimated at $4,750,000 per annum. 
The saving in the future in the cost of double tracking and by the use 
of water power will increase the advantage of electric traction. 



PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 521 

BURGDORT-THUN RAILWAY: 1899. 
INTERURBAN RAILWAY. 



Items. 



Amount. 



Unit. 



Total. Per cent. 



Power plant, estimate 4,500 kw 

Transmission line, 15, 500 -volt, 3-phase 24 miles. 

Transformers, 14 substations 450 kw. 

Contact line, 2-wire, 3-phase, 750- volt. 8-mm. 

Motor cars, six 32-ton ; 320 -h. p. 

Locomotives, two 33-ton i 300-li. p. 

Total I 29 miles 



I $450,000 

I 26,600 

@ $5 30,400 
I 66,500 

I 44,650 

@21,300| $618,150 



72.8 
19.9 

7.3 

100.0 



VALTELLINA RAILWAY: 1902. 



Items. 


Amount. 


Unit. 


Total. 


Per cent. 


Power plant 

Power plant machinery 


7500-h. p. 




$500,000 \ 
140,000 / 
340,000 
260,000 


51.6 


Line construction . . 






27.4 


Rolling stock 






21.0 




67 miles @ 


$18,500 




Total 


$1,240,000 


100.0 



MILAN- VARESE RAILWAY: 1902. 



Items. 



Amount. 



Unit. 



Total. 



Per cent. 



Power plant with storage batteries ' i $240,000 } 21.8 

Third rail, etc 1 460,000 | 41.9 

Motor cars 25 ; 340,000 \ j 

Locomotives j 5 \^ $12,000 60,000 / | '_ 

'@, $10,400 I $1,100,000 ' 100.0 



Total 105.7 miles 



Data for 1902 are not verv valuable. 



522 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 
COST OF ELECTRIFICATION, SUMMARY. 



Name of railroad. 


Electric 
mileage. 


Estimated 
cost of elec- 
trification. 


Cost per 

single- 
track mile. 


Notes on construction. 


Boston & Eastern. . . . 


41 
128 

22 
461 

100 
63 

125 

374 

118 

120 

50 

150 

33 

12 

19 

5000 

162 

6 


$2,282,590 

6,413,000 

880,000 

32,750,000 

5,000,000 
5,000,000 

10,700,000 

9,158,000 

17,000,000 

11,000,000 

20,000,000 

3,943,829 

344,300 

500,000 

950,000 


$55,270 
50,000 
44,000 
70,950 

50,000 


Proposed 600-volt system. 


Boston & Albany 


Proposed 1200- volt system. 


Boston & Maine .... 


Hoosac Tunnel section. 


New York, New Haven & H. 

New York, New Haven & H. 

to 1911 


Proposed Boston Terminal. 
Woodlawn-Stamford, Connecticut. 


N Y Westchester & Boston 


New York to White Plains etc 


New York Central 


85,600 

24,486 

144,000 

91,667 

400,000 

29,300 

10,433 

41,666 

50,000 

9,000 

6,520 

200,000 


r N. Y. City to North White Plains. 
\ N. Y. City to Yonkers. 


New York Central 


Manhattan Elevated 


Elevated R. R. 
Brooklyn-Long Island . 
Newark, New York, Long Island. 
Philadelphia-Atlantic City. 
Baltimore- Annapolis. 




West Jersey & Seashore 

Annapolis Short Line 

Grand Trunk 




Detroit- Windsor Tunnel. 




Average of 20 roads. 
Without power plant. 




1,056,188 
1,200,000 
10,000,000 
4,000,000 
1,490,000 
5,250,000 




Southern Pacific 


Oakland suburban service. 


Swedish State 






To be completed in 1914. 
Completed in 1904. 


Paris-Orleans 


37 
15 


40,000 
340,400 
7,000 
21,300 
18,500 
10,400 


Paris-Metropolitan 


Completed in 1904. 


German State 


Without power plant. 
Year 1899. Three phase. 
Year 1902. Three phase. 


Burgdorf-Thun, interurban. . 
Valtellina 


29 

67 

105 


618,150 
1,240,000 
1,100,000 


Milan- Varese 


Year 1899. Third rail. 



Data are incomplete and approximate. Short lines are hardly com- 
parable with long lines, because local or short-haul service requires heavy 
investment per mile. In some cases, e. g., Pennsylvania Railroad, all of 
the tunnel roads, terminal railways, suburban development, etc., a large 
investment has been made and the full use of same will not be obtained 
until extensions are completed. In two cases noted, power is purchased, 
and 30 per cent, of the usual investment was not made. Cost of cars 
which, in reality, should not be charged against the cost of electrifica- 
tion, and cost of track and terminal changes or improvements have been 
included in the cost of electrification. Other data can be tabulated 
on the cost per ton-mile hauled. 

ERRORS TO BE AVOIDED. 

Errors to be avoided in electrification are noted briefly as follows : 

Electrification should not be compulsory at the present time. Rail- 
roads should be given time to make an honest study of the application of 
electric motive power, as used on similar or longer roads. 

Power plant load factor must not be low. This was considered in 
detail in Chapter XII, which see. 

Electrification for short distances should be avoided. Electrification 



PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 523 

for distances less than twelve miles cannot, from the very nature of the 
problem, produce economical results and a profitable financial invest- 
ment for the railroad. This has been outlined and emphasized thruout 
this chapter and also in the chapter on Power Plants, under load factor. 

Freight haulage should not be neglected. Net earnings from freight 
are large and persistent, and freight haulage by electric locomotives 
deserves consideration in every plan for electrification. The power sta- 
tion, if provided for passenger requirements only, will have a large unused 
capacity between the hours of peak load, which could be utilized for the 
transportation of freight. The occupation and use of the tracks and 
electric contact line by passenger trains, during these hours of peak load, 
prevent the operation of freight trains at such times; while at other hours 
the freight traffic automatically fills in the load valleys. Thus the invest- 
ment is utilized to best advantage, i. e., continually, and apparatus is 
worked at near the full load. 

Amount of equipment planned or purchased for the electric power 
plant, lines, substation, and motive power should not be too small for the 
maximum service, the holiday and snow storm conditions. Some rolling 
stock will alwaj^s be undergoing repairs. Energy is required for lighting, 
heating, shops, power, signals, and transmission losses. Power plants 
should be so constructed that there is an opportunity to expand symmet- 
rically and economically, and without that waste which follows an 
unsatisfactory compromise. Rebuilding is expensive, and plans should 
be so comprehensive that radical changes will occur at long intervals. 

Number of power plants and substations should not be too large. 
Ordinarily substations are too near together. This was formerly neces- 
sary, to decrease the losses in low-voltage feeder lines. The first result 
of such a mistake is to increase the cost of buildings and substation atten- 
dants; and the load factor of each substation, and of its feeding lines, be- 
comes notoriously bad. On an ordinary railroad with 75 miles of route and 
about 16 trains each way per day, electrification plans for which have 
been developed by the writer, a total maximum output of about 8,000 
kilowatts was required. One substation, or the main station, at the 
middle of the line, carrying the full load, would have a load factor of 64 
per cent.; 2 substations, a load factor of 35 and 41 per cent.; and 3 
substations, 18 to 20 miles apart, a load factor of about 31 per cent. 
Amount of equipment required to deliver the average kilowatts, or to haul 
the ton-mileage, increases rapidly as the number of substations is in- 
creased. This apparently leads to an argument for the single-phase sys- 
tem, because the high voltage used on the contact line allows trans- 
former substations to be placed long distances apart; and the load is so 
equalized that there is the minimum equipment for the maximum work. 
The cost of electrification and operation of long railroads would be ex_ 



524 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

cessive with frequent substations, 1200-volt, direct-current, rotating ap- 
paratus, and substation attendants. 

Power plants must be used jointly by railroads, whenever it is possible, 
to avoid duplication in investment and to obtain higher load factors and 
economy of operation. 

** The simultaneous maintenance of the facilities and working forces 
for both steam and electric service within the same limits will be rarely 
profitable for the reason that a large proportion of expenses incident to 
both kinds of service is retained, without realizing the full economy of 
either. To secure the fullest economy, it is necessary to extend the 
electric service over the whole length of the existing engine stage or 
district, and to include both passenger and freight trains." E. H. 
McHenry, Vice-President, New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad. 

One great obstacle to electrification is the large capital required. 
The railroad must not pay interest upon a double investment, that for 
steam and that for electricity. Terminal electrification is expensive and 
no gain is made when one end of a railroad is electrified while the rest is 
operated by steam. It is certainly a case of steam plus electricity, which 
obviously is an uneconomical procedure. The substitution should in all 
cases include passenger and freight operation and yard switching. Par- 
tial electrification will always be financially unsuccessful. 

Steam railroad electrification should not be started until there is a 
proper appreciation of the problems involved. A railroad requires more 
consideration than an interurban road, and experience in the latter does 
not qualify one for work on the former. Where the traffic is important, 
experiments must not be tried. Without proper appreciation of the 
problem, reliable and economical service which is needed for freight 
and passenger work, damage will result. Enthusiasm cannot be used 
as a basis for procedure. Facts must not be concealed, for they may 
react to the detriment of those responsible for good operating results, 
and often to the embarrassment of the railroad.- 

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS OF RAILROADS. 

The electric railway engineer's work in the electrification of railroads 
requires preparation. This should enable him, first of all, to comprehend 
the scope of specific railroad problems. For their solution, the real facts 
must be obtained and so fortified with general and detailed information 
that they cannot be set aside or questioned. The ability to refer to 
authorities, to the recorded experience of others, to collect the data and 
facts, and to do it quickly when needed, certainly constitutes a valuable 
asset in this engineering work. The engineer's note book or record of 
experience is generally very valuable. 

The men who have been graduated from a course of study embracing 



PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 525 

electric railway engineering, and who will follow electrification work, need 
long experience in practical work, in power-plant operation, construction 
of transmission and contact lines, repair shop experience, and an appren- 
tice course; to be followed by design of apparatus, and study of cost 
of equipment, and cost of operation. A study of statistical tables and 
the equipment and methods used on different railways is most advan- 
tageous. In electrification work, economical and efficient methods are 
of paramount importance. 

The electrical superintendent of a road often has charge of the loco- 
motives and electrical equipment used on the division. He reports to 
the superintendent and engineer of maintenance of way, on the traffic 
and construction matters respectively; and to the mechanical superin- 
tendent on those things relating to the mechanical details of the 
locomotive construction and maintenance in operation. The electrical 
superintendent often has under him a road foreman of electric engines and 
motor cars, and the chief engineer of the power house. 

" The duties of the electrical engineer are to specify the electrical apparatus needed 
to satisfy the load or working conditions; to fit this apparatus in with the present 
motive power ; to act as interpreter between the railroad and the manufacturer ; to so 
arrange that the number of standards used is not unnecessarily increased; further, 
to secure the co-operation of the different departments of the transportation system 
and to make certain that the new equipment will be properly used and cared for." 
W. N. Smith, to A. I. E. E., Dec, 1907. 

" The question of electrification of trunk lines devolves upon the engineers of our 
railways to determine to what extent electric power is justifiable in heavy trunk-line 
service. It is a problem of great magnitude and involves not only technical skill, 
but judgment of the highest order, and the solution must, in the final analysis, be 
made by railway men, familiar with the intricacies of railway operation and its needs. 
Railway engineers should prepare for this economic change that has already begun, 
in order that the problems that demand solution may be solved on a sound basis, and 
that costly mistakes which ignorance would otherwise impose may be avoided." 
L. C. Fritch, President of the American Railway Engineering Association, referring 
to the Pennsylvania Railroad electrification at New York City, March, 1911. 

ENGINEERS FOR ELECTRIC RAILROADS. 



Name of railroad. Name of engineer. [ Title. 



Address. 



Boston Elevated Paul Winsor Chief Engineer of M. P . . . i Boston. 

John W. Corning. . Electrical Engineer Boston. 

New York Central J. F. Deems General Supt. of M. P . . . . New York. 

E. B. Katte Chief Engineer of E. T . . . New York. 

H. A. Currie Ass't Electrical Engineer. . i New York. 

W. A. Del Mar .... Ass't Engineer of Electri-i New York. 

cal Transmission Dep't. 
Wm. G. Carleton.. Supt. Power, Electrical New York. 
: Division. 

I A. W. Whaley General Superintendent' New York. 

of Electrical Division, 



526 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 
ENGINEERS FOR ELECTRIC RAILROADS. (Continued.) 



Name of railroad. 


Name of engineer. 


Title. ^ 


Address. 


New York, New Haven & Hart- 


E. H. McHenry... 
W. S. Murray 


Vice President 




ford. 


Electrical Engineer 


New Haven. 




C. L. Peterson 


Engineer of Power Plant. . 


Cos Cob. 




H. S Day 


Foreman of Shops 


Stamford. 




H. Gilliam. . . . 


Electrical Superintendent. 


Stamford. 




W.J. O'Meara 


Foreman of Electric Locos. 


New York. 




L. S. Boggs 


Supt. Overhead Construct. 


New Rochelle. 




L. C. Winship 

Geo. Gibbs 


Electrical Superintendent. 
Chief Engineer of E. T. . . 
Electrical Superintendent. 










L. S. Wells 


Long Island. 




L. S. Woodruf 


Assistant Superintendent . 


Long Island. 




R. W. Brodmann . . 


Foreman of Shops 


Morris Park. 




F. G. Clark 


Superintendent of Power. 


Long Island. 


Pennsylvania : 


George Gibbs 

E. R. Hill 


Chief Engineer of E. T . . . 


New York 


New York Terminal Div. 


New York. 




Hugh Pattison 


Supt. of Construction. . . . 


New York. 




R. D. Combs 


Structural Engr. of E. T. . 


New York. 


West Jersey & Seashore 


J. W. Rogers 


Electrical Supervisor 


Camden, Pa. 




B. F. Wood 


Assistant Engineer 


Altoona, Pa. 




J. R. Sloan 


Electrical Engineer 


Altoona, Pa. 


Interborough Rapid Transit. . . 


Henry G. Stott. . . . 


Superintendent of M. P . . 


New York. 




J. S. Doyle 


Supt. of Equipment 


New York. 




L. B. StiUwell 


Electrical Director 


New York. 


Hudson & Manhattan 


Hugh Hazelton. . . . 


Electrical Engineer 


New York. 




L. G. Smith 


Chief Electrician 


New York. 




J. H. Davis 


Electrical Engineer 

Asst. Elec. Engineer 






L. S. BiUau 


Baltimore. 


Boston & Maine 


W. S. Murray 

H. H. Vaughan... . 






Canadian Pacific 


Assistant to V. P 


Montreal. 




N. Cauchon 


Consulting Engineer 


Ottawa. 


Delaware, Lackawanna & West- 


T. E. Clark 


General Superintendent. . 


Scranton, Pa. 


ern. 


T. S. Lloyd 


Superintendent M. P 


Scranton, Pa. 




H. M. Warren 


Electrical Engineer 


Scranton, Pa. 


Delaware & Hudson . . 


C S Sims 


V P and G M 


Albany. 




Axel Ekstrom 


Electrical Engineer 


Albany. 


Erie R. R 


W J Harahan 


V P of Engineering Dept. 


New Ycrrk. 


- 


D. H. Wilson, Jr. . 


Electrical Engineer 


Meadville, Pa. 




R. C. Thurston .... 


Supt. Electrical Service. . . 


Avon, N. Y. 


Grand Trunk 


W. D. Hall 

J. F. Jones 


Supt. of Motive Power . . . 
Supt. of Terminals 






Port Huron. 


Michigan Central 


J. C. Mock ... . 


Electrical Engineer 


Detroit. 




H. B. P. Wrenn . . . 


Electric Locomotive Engr. 


Detroit. 


Lackawanna & Wyoming Val. . 


J. H. Murray 


Supt. of Transmission .... 


Scranton , 




H. G. Burt 




Chicago. 




George Gibbs 


Consulting Engineer 


New York 


Aurora, Elgin & Chicago 


E. F. Gould 


Electrical Engineer 


Wheaton, 111. 


Ff. Dodge, Des Moines & S . . . 


H. A. Fiske 


Electrical Engineer 


Boone, Iowa. 


Wabash 


A. 0. Cunningham. 
W J Bohan. 


Chief Engineer 


St. Louis. 


Northern Pacific 


Electrical Engineer 


St. Paul. 


Great Northern 


R. D. Hawkins. . . . 


Supt. of Motive Power . . . 


New York. 


Spokane & Inland Empire .... 


A. M. Lupfer 


Chief Engineer 


Spokane. 




J. B. IngersoU 


Chief Electrical Engineer. 


Spokane. 


Northwestern Pacific 


F. T. Vanatta 


Chief Electrician 


Sausalito. 








Los Angeles. 


Southern Pacific Company .... 


Allen H. Babcock . 


Electrical Engineer. 


San Francisco. 


Northern Electric, Cal 


J. P. Edwards 


Electrical Engineer 


Chico, Cal. 



PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 527 
ENGINEERS FOR ELECTRIC RAILROADS. (Continued.) 




Address. 



London Electric J. R. Chapman . . 

A. R. Cooper 

Mersey Ry J. Shaw 

Lancashire & Yorkshire J. A. F. Aspinwall 

North-Eastern, England C. H. Merz 

Midland Ry., England J. Dalziel 

J. Sayers 

London, Brighton & S. C Wm. Forbes 

Philip Dawson .... 
Swedish State Robt. Dahlander. . 



Paris-Orleans 

Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean. 

Western French 

Southern French 

Prussian State 

Austrian State 

Swiss Federal 

Bernese Alps 



Italian State. 



Paul du Bois . . 
M. Auvert. . . . 

M. Mazen 

M. JuUian 

G. O. Wittfeld. 
M. Krasny . . . . 
W. Wyssling . 
Charles Wirth 
L. Thorman . . 
M. Verola 



Chief Engineer. [ London. 

Electrical Engineer London. 

Electrical Engineer. ...... I Liverpool. 



General Manager 

Consulting Engineer 

Ass't. Loco. Supt 

Electrical Engineer 

General Manager 

Electrical Advisor 

Chief Engineer 

Engineer 

Engineer 

Engineer 

Engineer 

Electrical Advisor 

Engineer 

Secretary 

Engineer 

Consulting Engineer 

Chief Engineer, Elec. Dept. 



Liverpool. 
New Castle. 
Lancaster. 



London. 

London. 

Stockholm. 

Paris. 

Paris. 

Paris. 



Berne. 
Berne. 



AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION, COMMITTEE ON 

ELECTRIC WORKING. 



Name of engineer. 



Name of railroad. 



George Gibbs Pennsylvania. 



E. H. McHenry New York, New Haven & H. 

G. W. Kittridge j New York Central 

G. A. Harwood 

C. E. Linsay . | 

E. B. Katte ! 

J. B. Austin, Jr Long Island 

J. A. Savage 

A. O. Cunningham i Wabash 

L. C, Fritch ; Chicago Great Western 

N. E. Baker I Illinois Central 



Address. 



New York 

New Haven 

New York. 
New York. 
New York, 
New York. 
Long Island City. 
Long Island City. 
St. Louis. 
Chicago. 
Chicago. 



AMERICAN RAILWAY ASSOCIATION, COMMITTEE ON HEAVY ELECTRIC 

TRACTION. 



Name of engieer. 



Name of railroad. 



Address. 



W. S. Murray New York, New Haven & H New York. 

E. B. Katte New York Central New York. 

E. R. Hill Pennsylvania New York. 

J. H. Davis Baltimore & Ohio Baltimore. 

Hugh Hazelton Hudson & Manhattan | New York. 

E. F. Gould I Aurora, Elgin & Chicago I Wheaton, 111. 



528 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

MANUFACTURING AND CONSTRUCTING CORPORATIONS. 



Name of company. Name of engineer, j Title. 

j 


Address. 


General Electric 

Westinghouse . . . 


E. B. Rice, Jr 

J. G. Barry 

W. B. Potter 

A. H. Armstrong... 
S. T. Dodd 

A. F. Batchelder . . 
W. J. Clark. . 

B. G. Lamme 

N. W. Storer 

C. S. Cook 

F. E. Wynne 

F. Darlington 

Robt. L. Wilson . . . 

F. H. Shepard 

L. E Bogen . . 


V. P. and Chief Engineer. 
Manager Ry. Department 
Ch. Engr. Ry. Department 

Ass't Engr. Ry. Dept 

Ry. Engrng. Department. 
Locomotive Department. . 

Mgr. Traction Dept 

Electric Engineer . 


Schenectady. 

Schenectady. 

Schenectady. 

Schenectady. 

Schenectady. 

Schenectady. 

New York. 

Pittsburg. 




Engineer Ry. Division . . . 
Mgr. Ry. Department. . . . 
Engr. Ry. Project Dept. . 


Pittsburg. 
Pittsburg. 
Pittsburg. 
Pittsburg. 


All is-Ch aimers 


Supt. Loco. Installations . 
Special Representative.. . . 


Pittsburg. 
New York. 


Siemens & Halske 




Berlin. 


AUgemeine Elektricitats 




Berlin. 


Bergmann Electric 






Berlin. 


Ganz Electric 








Oerlikon 








Brown, Boveri 








Alioth Electric 








Italian Westinghouse 






Vado-Ligure. 


Thury 









i 





LITERATURE. 
References to General Articles on Electrification. 

Smith, W. N.: Practical Aspects of Electrification, A. I. E. E., Dec, 1907. 
De Muralt: Heavy Electric Traction Problems, A. I. E. E., June, 1905. 
Fowler: Value of Electrification to a Railroad, E. W., March 21, 1908. 
Pomeroy: Electrification of Trunk Lines, I. of M. E., July 29, 1910. 
Carter: Electrification of (suburban) Steam Roads, I. of M. E., July 29, 1910. 
Westinghouse: Electrification of Railways, I. of M. E., July 29, 1910. 
Potter: Unit Cost of Electrification, I. of M. E., July 29, 1910. 

(The last four papers were abstracted in American railway papers.) 
Dariington: Financial Aspects of AppKcation of Electric Motive Power to Railroads, 
Elec. Journal, Feb. and Sept., 1910. 

References on Procedure and Cost of Electrification. 
Siemens and Halske: Three-phase Electrification, S. R. J., May 16, 1903, p. 736. 
Lincoln: Interurban Railways, D. C. vs. A.C., S. R. J., Dec. 12, 1903. 
Blanck: Interurban Railways, A. I. E. E., Feb. 16, 1904; S. R. J., March 12, 1904 
Davis, W. J.: Interurban Railways, D. C. or A. C, S. R. J., Sept. 7, 1907. 
New York R. R. Club: Report of Committee on Electrification of Steam Railroads, 

April, 1910 and 1911. 
Gotshall and Mailloux: New York & Port Chester, S. R. J., and A. I. E. E., 1904- 

1907. 
Potter and Arnold: New York Central Electrification, A. I. E. E., June, 1902. 
Wilgus: New York Central Electrification, S. R. J., Oct. 8, 1904, p. 585. 
Sprague: Facts and Problems on Electric Trunk-line Operation, A. I. E. E., May, 

1907. 



PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 529 

Katte: Report Against Electrification of a Division with Light Traffic in the Adiron- 
dack Mountains, E. R. J., Aug. 7, 1909. 

New York, New Haven & Hartford: Harlem River Freight Yards; Murray, A. I. E. E., 
Apr., 1911; S. R. J., Sept. 3, 1904; New York Division, Dec. 23, 1905. 

Boston & Maine: Concord-Manchester Division, S. R. J., Dec. 6, 1902. 

Boston & Eastern: E. W., Nov. 28, 1908; S. R. J., July 13, 1907. 

Boston-Providence: S. R. J., April 8, 1905. 

Long Island: Lyford & Smith, A. I. E. E., Nov., 1904; West. Church, Kerr & Co., 
Bulletins No. 3-4. 

West Jersey & Seashore : Wood, Data on Cost of Construction and Operation, A. I. E. E., 
June, 1911. 

Baltimore & Annapolis: Whitehead, A. I. E. E., June, 1908. 

Cumberland Valley (Pa.) R. R.: S. R. J., Dec. 23, 1905. 

Ocean Shore R. R., California: Sprout, E. R. J., Dec. 12, 1908. 

Melbourne, Australia: Merz, E. R. J., Oct. 3, 1908, p. 751. 



34 



CHAPTER XV. 
WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 

Outline. 

General Status. 

Classification of Development. 

Railroads Operating Divisions by Electricity. List. 

Train Service of Electric Railroads. List. 

Technical Data on Completed Electrifications : 

Boston & Maine R. R. ; New York, New Haven & Hartford R. R., New York 
Division; New York Central & Hudson River R. R., Harlem & Hudson 
Divisions, West Shore Railroad; Pennsylvania Railroad, Long Island Railroad, 
Pennsylvania Tunnel & Terminal R. R., West Jersey & Seashore R. R. ; 
Hudson & Manhattan R. R.; Baltimore & Annapolis Short Line; Baltimore 
& Ohio R.R; Michigan Central R.R; Grand Trunk R.R; Erie R.R; Chicago, 
Burlington & Quincy, Colorado & Southern R. R., Denver & Interurban R. R. ; 
Spokane & Inland Empire R. R.; Great Northern Ry.; Southern Pacific 
Company. 

Terminal Railway and Switch Yard Electrification (see Chapter I.) 

Proposed Electrifications : 

Boston & Albany R. R. ; Delaware, Lackawanna & Western R. R.; Illinois 
Central R, R; Canadian Pacific Railway; Butte, Anaconda & Pacific 
Railway; other proposed American Railroad Electrifications. 

European Railroad Electrification : 

England, Sweden and Norway, Spain and France, Germany and Austria, 
Switzerland and Italy. 

Conclusion and Stunmary. 



530 



CHAPTER XV. 

WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION. 

GENERAL STATUS. 

The general status of electric traction for railway trains is obtained 
from technical facts on the extent and character of the constructions which 
have been completed. The extent of the progress has been shown by the 
number of motor cars and locomotives in use, and the electric mileage. 
The character of the construction has been set forth in the technical 
descriptions of rolling equipment, transmission and contact lines, and 
power plants. Electric traction has been adopted, or is being considered, 
by progressive railroads, which are able to do things on a large scale; 
second-class, weak roads have not adopted electric train haulage. 

Classification of the development under service, traffic, location, and 
equipment is first illustrated. 



CLASSIFICATION 


OF ELECTRIC RAILWAY DEVELOPMENT. 




Class of railway 


Kind of 
service. 


Cars 

in 
trains. 


Right- 
of- 
way. 


Owns 
term- 
inals. 


MCB 
coup- 
lers. 


Best examples of a railway 
of this class. 


Year 
equip- 


service. 


Pass. 


Fgt. 


ped. 


Railroad 


Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 
No. 
No. 
Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 
No. 
Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 


Yes. 

Part. 

No. 

No. 

No. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

No. 

No. 

No. 

No. 

No. 

No. 

No. 

No. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Light. 

Light. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

No. 


All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

Few. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

AU. 

All. 

All. 

Few. 

Few. 

Frt. 

Frt. 

No. 


All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

Part. 

All. 

Yes. 

All. 

All. 

Part. 

All. 

Part. 

Part. 

No. 


Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

No. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Part. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

No. 

No. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

No. 


Yes!' 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes! 

Yes. 

Yes. 

No. 

Yes. 

No. 

No. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

No. 

No. 

Frt. 

Frt. 

No. 


Lancashire & Yorkshire 

New Haven, New York Div. . . 
Long Island Railroad . . . 


1903 
1907 
1904 




New York Central. . 


1906 




Pennsylvania R. R. . . . . 


1910 


Freight 


Pacific Electric Ry 


1898 


New Haven, Harlem Division. 

Hoboken Shore R. R 

Bush Terminal R. R 

Baltimore & Ohio. . . 


1911 

1898 


Tunnel 


1904 
1895 


Grand Trunk 


1907 




Great Northern. ... 


1909 


Mountain 

Parallel 


Giovi Ry., Italy 

West Jersey and Seashore 

West Shore R. R 

Erie R. R 

Interborough Rapid Transit. . . 

Hudson & Manhattan 

Aurora, Elgin & Chicago 

Manhattan Elevated R. R 

London, Brighton & South C. . 
Los Angeles Pacific . 


1909 
1907 


Branch 


1906 
1907 


Rapid transit. . . 

Elevated 

Suburban 

Interurban 

street 


1904 
1908 
1902 
1902 
1910 
1900 


Spokane & Inland Empire .... 
Chicago & Milwaukee Electric. 
Chicago, Lake Shore & South B. 

Illinois Traction Company 

Waterloo, Cedar Falls & North. 
United States mileage, 36,000. 


1906 
1899 
1908 
1903 
1900 
1911 



531 



532 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



RAILROADS OPERATING DIVISIONS OR BRANCHES BY ELECTRICITY. 

Name, Location, and Mileage. 

A railroad uses a standard gage, private right-of-way, M. C. B. couplers, and operates cars in trains. 

Elevated, subway, and interurban railways were listed in Chapter I. 

Moto cars used on city streets are not listed. 

These tables were compiled from the National Railway Guide, American Street Railway Invest- 
ments, State and Interstate Commerce Commission Reports, Steam and Electric Railw^ay Journals; 
also by correspondence, and personal inspection of properties. 



Name of railroad. 



Name of division, sub-company 
or location. 



Motor 
cars. 



Loco- 
mtvs. 



Route 
miles. 



Boston & Maine. 



New York, New Haven, & Hart- 
ford. 



New York, West Chester & 

Boston. 
New York Central & Hudson River 



Delaware & Hudson. 



Pennsylvania R. R. 



Hudson & Manhattan 

Interboro Rapid Transit 

Brooklyn Rapid Transit 

Bush Terminal 

Hoboken Shore 

Philadelphia & Reading 

Philadelphia & Western 

Norfolk & Southern R. R 

Albany Southern R. R. ..... . 

Erie R. R... 

New York, Auburn & Lansing 
International Ry 



137 



Concord-Manchester Branch 

Portsmouth- Rye Division 

Hoosac Tunnel 

Boston-Beverly 

New York Division 

Stamford-New Canaan 

Providence- Warren- Bristol 

Rhode Island Company , 

Connecticut Company 

Harlem River- New Rochelle 

New York-Port Chester 

Mt. Vernon-White Plains. 
Harlem Division: Grand Central 

Station, N.Y. to N. White Plains. 
Hudson Division: Grand Central 

Station, N. Y. to Hastings. J : 

West Shore R. R. (Oneida) \- 21 

New York State Rys. Co.: 

Schenectady, Rochester, Utica 

Syracuse-Geneva Div. (proposed) . . 

Putnam Div. (proposed). 

United Traction, Albany 

Hudson Valley Ry 

Schenectady Ry., (1/2) !..... 

Long Island R. R., 3rd. rail 361 

New York & Long I. Traction 

Long Island Electric Ry 

Other elec. rys. on Long Island 

New York Terminal Division 

Newark-Jersey City (1/2) [ 50 

West Jersey & Seashore \ 108 

Philadelphia Terminal 

Cincinnati-Lebanon Division 

New York-Hoboken- Jersey City . . 216 

Jersey City-Newark (1/2) 50 

Manhattan Elevated 895 

Interboro Subway 910 

Brooklyn Elevated Division , 659 

Brooklyn i 

Hoboken, N.J 

Cape May, Del. Bay & S. P. Div. ... j 12 
Philadelphia-Norristown ' 28 



47 



Norfolk- Virginia Beach 

Albany to Hudson, etc 

Rochester-Mount Morris Division 

Lansing to Ithaca, N. Y 

Buffalo-Lockport Division 



WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 



533 



RAILROADS OPERATING DIVISIONS OR BRANCHES BY ELECTRICITY. 

(Continued.) 
Name, Location, and Mileage. 



Name of railroad. 



Name of division sub-company Motor 
or location. cars. 



Loco- 
mtvs. 



Route Total 
miles, miles. 



Jamestown, Chautauqua & Lake 
Erie. 

Niagara, St. Catharine & Toronto. . 

Delaware, Lackawanna & West- 
em. 

Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley . . 

Wilkes-Barre & Hazelton 

Baltimore & Ohio 

Baltimore & Annapolis Short Line. 

Hocking Valley Ry 

Detroit, Monroe & Toledo S. L. . . 

Michigan Central R. R 

Grand Trunk Ry. of Canada 



Jamestown- Westfield, proposed 



Canadian Pacific . 



Montreal Terminal 

Toledo & Indiana 

Toledo & W^estern 

Scioto Valley 

Cincinnati, Geo. <k Portsmouth. . 

Illinois Traction Company 

Peoria Ry. & Terminal Company 
Rock Island Southern R. R. . . . 
Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul . 



Ft. Dodge, Des Moines & Southern. 

Cedar Rapids & Iowa City 

Waterloo, Cedar Falls & Northern. 

East St. Louis & Suburban 

St. Louis Iron Mtn. & Southern. . 

Chicago, Burlington & Quincy. . . . 

Colorado & Southern R. R 



Salt Lake & Ogden R. R 

Great Northern Ry 

Spokane, Portland & Seattle: 

United Rys. Company. . . . 

Oregon Electric Ry 



Niagara-Port Dalhousie 

Hoboken-Morristown, proposed . . . 

Scran ton grades, proposed 

Wilkes-Barre-Scranton-Carbondale. 

Wilkes- Barre-Hazelton 

Belt Line at Baltimore 

Baltimore- Annapolis 

Welleston & Jackson Belt Ry 

Detroit-Toledo 

Detroit River Tunnel 

St. Clair Tunnel 

Hamilton, Grimsby & B earns ville. . 

Hull Electric Company 

Montreal Terminals, proposed 

Aroostook Valley R. R., Me 

Hull, Ottawa & Aylmer Division . . . 
British Columbia, Lulu Island Div . . 

Ottawa Tunnel & Terminal 

Montreal-local 

Toledo- St. Joseph- Bryan 

Toledo-Pioneer-Adrian Division . . . 

Columbus, O.-Chillicothe 

Cincinnati-Georgetown 

St. Louis, Peoria, Danville 

Peoria-Pekin, Illinois 

Rock Island-Monmouth 

Evanston-Chicago Branch (operat- 
ed by Chicago & Milwaukee Elec.) 

Gallatin Valley Ry., Bozeman 

Des Moines-Fort Dodge 

Cedar Rapids-Iowa City 

Waterloo- Waverly 

Illinois, coal haulage 

Coal Belt Ry., Carterville, Illinois. . 

Deadwood (S. D.) Central Ry 

Denver & Interurban R. R 

Colorado Springs & Cripple Creek . . 

Salt Lake-Ogden 

Cascade Tunnel 



Spokane & Inland Empire 

Northern Pacific R. R 

Portland Ry., Lighting & Power. 

Puget Sound Electric 

Northwestern Pacific 

Ocean Shore Ry 

San Francisco, Oakland & San Jose 

Northern Electric 



17 



600 
10 
10 



Portland-Bay City 

Portland-Salem 

Salem-Eugene 

Spokane-Moscow-Hayden Lake . 
Snohomish-Everett, Washington 
Portland-Canemah, Washington . 

Seattle-Tacoma-Renton 

San Francisco-San Rafeal 

San Franci3co-Santa Cruz 

San Francisco-San Jose 

San Francisco-Sacramento 

Sacramento-Mary ville-Chico j 42 



25 
6 
30 
141 
37 
40 
38 



2 
1 
5 


1 
22 

1 




28 



75 
116 



460 
19 


560 
20 


52 


82 


6 


20 


25 


30 


70 


141 


29 


30 


24 


90 


20 


31 


15 


18 


4 


4 


45 


54 


19 


20 


35 


55 


4 


6 


27 


30 


50 


80 


71 




68 


287 


9 


10 


40 


472 


37 


200 


20 


34 


53 


53 


6 


32 



534 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



RAILROADS OPERATING DIVISIONS OR BRANCHES BY ELECTRICITY. 

(Continued.) 
Name, Location, and Mileage. 



Name of railroad. 


Name of division sub-company 
or location. 


Motor 
cars. 


Loco- 
mtvs. 


Route 
miles. 


Total 
miles. 


Southern Pacific Company 


Oakland- Alameda Lines 


65 
6 




1 


30 
30 


100 


Visalia Electric Ry 


36 




San Jose- Los Gatos Interurban. . . . 


40 


Pacific Electric Ry 


Los Angeles Ry. Corporation 




18 
2 



10 
9 


■■■22" 

33 
50 
50 


600 


Los Angeles-Pacific . . . ... 


Los Angeles & Redondo Ry 

Los Angeles-Santa Monica-Ocean. 
San Diego-Chula Vista 


34 

121 

9 


100 
260 




50 


Havana Central R. R 




73 








55 











RAILROAD OPERATING DIVISIONS OR BRANCHES BY ELECTRICITY. 



Name of railroad. 



Name of division, sub-com- 
pany or location. 



Motor 
cars. 



Loco- 
mtvs. 



Route Total 
miles, miles. 



Mersey Tunnel 

Lancashire & Yorkshire . . . 

North-Eastem 

Central London 

City & South London . . . . 
Metropolitan District . . . . 

Metropolitan Ry 

Midland Ry 

London, Brighton & S. C. . 

Swedish State 

Thamshavn Lokken 

Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean 

Paris-Orleans 

West of France 

French Southern (Midi) .'. . 

Rotterdam-Hague 

Prussian State 

Bavarian State 

Baden State 

Rhine Shore 

Vienna Baden 

St.Polten Mariazell 

Swiss Federal 

Bernese- Alps 

Rhatische 

Italian State 



Liverpool- Birkenhead 

Liverpool-Southport-Ormskirk . 

New Castle-Tynemouth 

London 

London 

London 

London 

Heysham-Lancaster 

London-S. Lon. -Crystal Palace. 

Kiruna-Riksgraensen 

Thamshavn-Lokken 

Paris terminals 

Fayet-Chamonix 

Paris-Juvisy 

Paris- Versailles 

Pau-Montrejean 

Rotterdam-Scheveningen 

Hamburg-Ohlsdorf-Altoona ... 

Magdeburg-Dessau 

Mumau-Oberammergau 

Salzburg- Berchtesgarden 

Weisental: Basel-Zell 

Cologne-Bonn 

Vienna-Baden 

St. Polten -Mariazell 

Burgdorf-Thun 

Simplon Tunnel 

Beme-Simplon 

St. Moritz-Schuls, Switz 

Milan-Porto Ceresio 

Milan-Chiavenna 

Giovi at Genoa 

Savona-San Giuseppe 

Bardonnechie-Modana 



24 
80 
62 
68 


197 
130 

3 
46 



5 



80 
100 



30 

25 

110 



15 

10 

19 



6 



3 



20 

10 









12 



5 

40 

37 
7 
8 
25 
30 
10 
23 
93 
18 



19 



18 
18 
66 
25 
13 
52 
46 
48 
67 
13 
13 



10 
82 
82 
13 
16 
50 
60 
21 
62 
100 
26 
40 
34 
46 
16 
75 
48 
17 



33 
68 
26 
26 
55 
48 
81 
105 
26 
26 



WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 535 



FREIGHT AND PASSENGER TRAIN SERVICE AND EQUIPMENT ON 
ELECTRIC RAILROADS. 



Name of railroad. 



Division or service. 



Motor 
cars. 



Loco- 
in t vs. 



Trains 
per dy. 



Tonnage 
daily. 



Boston and Maine 

New York, New Haven & H. . . 

New York Central 

Long Island 

Pennsylvania 

West Jersey & Seashore 

Baltimore & Ohio 

Grand Trunk 

Michigan Central 

Spokane & Inland 

Great Northern, Cascade Tunnel 



Hoosac Tunnel 

New York-Stamford 

Harlem River-New Rochelle- .... 
Harlem and Hudson Divisions. . . 

Brooklyn -Long Island 

New York-Long Island 

Pennsylvania Tunnel & Terminal 

Philadelphia-Atlantic City 

Baltimore freight service 

Baltimore passenger service 

Port Huron, freight and passenger 
Detroit, freight and passenger. . . 

Freight service 

Passenger service 

Passenger service 

Freight service 





4 

4 

137 

136 

225 



108 











25 







100 
159 



562 
300 
310 
88 
90 
28 
21 
41 
40 



29,600 

6,630 

28,343 

70,000 



5,760 
2,690 



See table on Train Capacity on Elevated and Underground Roads, Chapter I. 

New York Central trains include storage trains between G. C. station and Mott Haven yards, 
light engines, fruit, express, and milk trains, shown on electric division time tables. Hudson 
Division has 122 trains, 88 of which handle suburban business; Harlem Division has 100 trains, all 
of which handle suburban business. 



TECHNICAL DATA ON RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATIONS. 



BOSTON & MAINE. 

Boston & Maine Railroad has electrified two first-class electric in- 
terurban roads and its Hoosac Tunnel section. 

Concord-Manchester division with 30 miles of track. Reference: 
St. Ry. Journ., Dec. 6, 1902; Oct. 12, 1907, page 539. 

Portsmouth, Rye & North Hampton (N. H.) division with 20 miles of 
track. Reference: St. Ry. Jour., March 29, 1908. 

Hoosac Tunnel section, on the main line between Albany and Boston, 
was electrified in 1910 and 1911. Many serious accidents had narrowly 
been avoided and the abolition of the risk was imperative. 

The tunnel, built in 1874, has double tracks and is 4.74 miles long. 
The profile of the tunnel is made up of 2.25 miles of 0.5 per cent, up- 
grade, 0.25 miles of level track and 2.25 miles of 0.57 per cent, down- 
grade. The west approach to the tunnel has an up-grade of 0.8 per cent, 
and the east approach, 0.5 per cent. 



536 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Four Mallet oil-burning engines had been purchased in 1909, at 
$29,450 each, for tunnel service and to eliminate smoke, but the expedient 
was unsatisfactory, and the Hoosac tunnel and grades remained the limit- 
ing point of service on the Fitchburg Division. 

Electrification extends from North Adams, the first station west of the 
tunnel, to a point 1/4 mile east of the tunnel, a total distance of about 
7 miles. The total track mileage is 22. 

The system used is the single-phase, 25-cycle, 11,000-volt. 

Five geared locomotives for 55-m. p. h. passenger trains, and for 30- 
m. p. h. freight trains of 1600 to 1800 tons, were ordered from the Westing- 
house Company. These are straight alternating-current locomotives, 
otherwise they are similar to the New Haven geared freight- locomo- 
tive, No. 071, already described. Each 130-ton locomotive has a 
1-hour rating of 1340 h. p., and a continuous rating on forced draft of 1120 
h. p., or 83 per cent, of the 1-hour rating on 300 volts; but extra taps are 
arranged in the transformers so that 25 per cent, greater voltage and 
power can be used, when necessary. 

See "Transmission and Contact Lines," Chapter XII. 

Power plant embraces two 2000-kilowatt turbo-generators. 

Cost of electrification is estimated at $880,000. The work was in 
service 7 months after its authorization. The capacity of the Fitchburg 
division was increased from 1000 cars to 2000 cars, per day, by the 
electrification. 

Reference: E. R. J., July 1, 1911. 

NEW YORK, NEW HAVEN & HARTFORD. 

New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad was the pioneer in electric 
traction applied to steam roads. The density of traffic on its lines favors 
the application of electric power, primarily as a matter of economy, and 
for that reason there is more electric service on its former steam lines than 
on other roads. The use of electric power will become common, because 
of the density of freight and passenger traffic. 

In 1895, its first steam road, the Nantasket Beach branch near Bos- 
ton, 7 miles long, began the use of electric power. The writer inspected 
this property at that time, and remembers the use of ordinary standard 
steam passenger coaches and motor express cars, in 450-ton trains, 
hauled by two or by four 125-h. p. direct-current motors per motor car. 
Experimental third rail and overhead trolley lines were being tried out. 
Trains were operated in the method usual with steam roads, and a heavy 
excursion traffic was handled. 

Other lines were electrified: The Berlin-New Britain branch, 12 
miles, in 1897; and the Hartford- Bristol branch (St. Ry. Jour., XIII, 
329, 776). N. H. Heft, electrical engineer, showed that on the branches 



WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 537 

electrified the speed had been materially increased, the traffic had 
doubled, and the cost of operation had been greatly decreased. 

Third-rail contacts then used were unprotected and dangerous, and 
for that reason electrical operation of some divisions was abandoned, 
while on others the 600-volt overhead trolley was used. 

Interurban lines of the NeAv York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad 
are controlled under the name of The Rhode Island Company and The 
Connecticut Company. The operation of electric interurban cars which 
run over steam tracks, as in the case of the road between Rockford, 
Rockville, and Melrose, and Berlin and Middletown, has been transferred 
to the New York, New Haven & Hartford, to keep the operation within 
the direct and immediate control of the main railroad. 

Electrification of the New York Division in New York City was caused 
by legislative acts, the New York Central and the New Haven both being 
involved. The Grand Central Station at New York is used by both 
roads. New York Central plans were for short-distance terminal and 
suburban traffic; but the New Haven road had no suburban traffic within 
15 miles of the New York City terminal, and its plans embraced the use of 
electric power to New Haven, Connecticut, 73 miles distant, for heavy 
trains, at high speed, in 4-track trunk-line service. 

Electric passenger train operation between New York City and Stam- 
ford, 34 miles, began on July 5, 1907, and was completed in June, 1908. 
The extension to New Haven is to be completed in 1912. 

The system of electrification adopted was the 660-volt, direct-current, 
third-rail over the New York Central electric zone to Woodlawn, 12 
miles from the New York terminal, and 11,000-volt, alternating-current 
from a single overhead trolley from Woodlawn to points east. An inter- 
changeable system was adopted, and the motor cars and freight and 
passenger locomotives run over any direct-current or single-phase 
circuit, and at any voltage. This plan marked an epoch in railroading. 

The daring of engineers after they comprehended the necessity of a 
new system for general railroad work, and, with little precedent and with- 
out experience on a large scale, undertook to design a complete system, 
including generators suitable for the work, a new type of overhead con- 
tact, and a new type of motor for trunk-line work, has never been sur- 
passed in the history of electrical achievements. 

Trouble occurred when the new electric system was installed. The work 
was condemned as experimental, unreliable, and expensive. Opposition 
to the new and untried system arose from engineers of rival manufactur- 
ing companies, agents for the three-phase system, consulting engineers of 
high rank who had perfected the direct-current system, and college pro- 
fessors from whom broad-gage treatment was to be expected. American 
Institute discussions of the New Haven electrification show biased views: 



538 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



The ancient criticisms of the deadly trolley, high cost, expensive oper- 
ation, sparking commutators, etc., were repeated. Errors were made. 
The magnitude of long-distance trunk-line problems was not at first ap- 
preciated; and the time for design, manufacture, and experiment on 
equipment for the power plant, lines, and locomotives was short, and 
months were required to perfect the details. 

The work completed and tried out is a physical success, as engineers 
who have carefully studied the operation of the road and the records of 
the maintenance of equipment testify. The motors and the overhead 
construction were suitable for high-speed, trunk-line railroading. 

Electric locomotives handle most of the traffic. There are 41 passen- 
ger locomotives, rated 960 h.p. each, used for the heavy trains at speeds 
up to 70 m.p.h. Three 1260- to 1400-h.p. locomotives are now used for 
either 1800-ton freight traifis at 35 m.p.h., or for 10-car, 800-ton, thru 
passenger trains at 50 m.p.h. Fifteen 600-h.p. switches are also used. 
There is some complication in the locomotives due to the necessity of 
providing control apparatus for operation ov^er both direct-current third 
rails and alternating-current trolleys. The locomotives, of which there 
are five types, have been described and operating results given. 

Motor-car trains are being installed to a limited extent. They are the 
heaviest equipment yet built. See description, page 251. 

Power plant has a rated capacity of 33,100 kilowatts. Equipment 
and operation have been outlined, page 485. 

Maintenance" costs for track have been reduced by the use of 
spring-mounted motors on locomotives. The up-keep of the overhead 
contact line, per train-mile, is stated by members of the Board to be less 
than for the third-rail section. 

Estimated cost for the electrification of the first 88 miles of track has 
been detailed, and totals $5,000,000. 

Operating expenses for the 12 months ending June 30, for electrical 
service, are shown by the following: 



Item. 



1910. 


1909. 


$132,297 


$3,616 


140,983 


256,704 


41,635 


34,715 


141,890 


144,846 


36,758 


56,944 


230,075 


236,422 


97,280 


176,293 



1908. 



Electric power transmission — maintenance 

Electric locomotives — repairs and renewals 

Electric equipment of cars — repairs and renewals 

Transportation expense — motormen 

Power-plant equipment — maintenance 

Operating power plants 

Purchased power for third-rail service 



$60,079 
27,860 
49,658 
58,110 
20,504 

127,111 
39,986 



WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 539 
Financial and traffic statistics have not yet been detailed. 



President C. S. Mellin of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Raihoad 
wrote to the Massachusetts Railroad Commission in 1908: "Our Company has been 
operating its passenger trains by electricity since July 1, 1908, between Stamford, 
Conn., and Grand Central Station, New York." 

"The work has been more or less of an experimental nature, and it is probably 
the largest venture in the way of electric traction there is in the country, in the mag- 
nitude of the business hauled and for the distance." 

" We believe we are warranted in stating that the electrical installation is a success 
from the standpoint of handling the business in question efficiently and with reason- 
able satisfaction, and the interruptions to our service are now no greater nor more 
frequent than was the case when steam was in use." 

Vice-President McHenry reported October 31, 1910, to the Boston Board of 
Metropolitan Improvements, regarding the electrification of the New York division: 

"The records of the New Haven Company demonstrate that under present con- 
ditions the electric train service not only fails to earn any interest upon the very 
large amount of capital invested, but that it has also increased the cost of operation," 

"In explanation of this disappointing result, it may be stated that the experience 
of the New Haven Company in operating a mixed steam and electric service has proven 
very unsatisfactory. The annoyances and losses due to smoke, cinders, steam, and 
noise are at best only alleviated without being eliminated, while at the same time so 
large a proportion of the expense of both methods of operation is retained as to 
prevent the reahzation of the fullest degree of economy of either system. This 
becomes more apparent when it is considered that the power stations, if provided 
for passenger requirements only, will have a large unused capacity between the hours 
of peak load, which otherwise could be utilized to very good advantage for the trans- 
portation of freight, and more particularly as the occupation of tracks by passenger 
trains during the hours of peak load acts automatically to limit the simultaneous 
operation of freight trains at such times. Thus little or no additional investment in 
power houses is required for freight operation, and similarly the overhead track 
equipment serves equally well for both passenger and freight traffic, which makes it 
practicable to extend electric operation to include all classes of service at the cost of 
only the additional engines and the equipment of yards required for freight service." 

" It therefore seems quite safe to conclude that no general substitution of electric 
for steam traction should be made unless the substitution is complete, including 
passenger and freight operation and yard switching in addition, and also that in making 
such substitution the operation should be extended to include the full length of run 
or engine district, in order to avoid the uneconomical subdivision of the present 
'train run, ' together with the added expense and delays incident to intermediate 
engine transfer stations." 

The directors, in 1911, after an exacting investigation of the relative 
saving in fuel, and of maintenance of locomotives and overhead contact 
lines, by direct and by alternating current, authorized the immediate 
expenditure of $12,000,000 for the electrification of 250 additional miles 
of track, including a 63-mile freight yard on the Harlem Branch, and the 
New York, Westchester and Boston, 15 switcher locomotives of 600 h.p. 
each, 60 motor cars of 600 h.p. each, and a 16,000-kilowatt addition to 



540 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

the power plant, and the use of the single-phase, 25-cycle, 11,000-volt 
system for the work. 

At Boston the Boston & Albany, Boston & Maine, and the New York, 
New Haven & Hartford have recently been subject to such competitioD, 
by the growth of suburban electric railways at Boston, that, to regain 
the traffic from their terminals and to handle business with economy, 
they are now considering the electrification in large zones radiating from 
the North and South stations at Boston. 

The present electrification plans for Boston embrace 462 miles of 
single track and the estimated cost, given to the Board of Metropolitan 
Improvements, October 31, 1910, is $32,750,000. The companies are 
not opposed to electrification but state that it is more practical at first to 
restrict the substitution of electricity for steam to a few of the more 
important of 20 routes, subsequently extending the system as rapidly as 
consistent with the financial conditions and public needs. The electri- 
fication of the Boston to Readville, and the Boston to Beverly divisions 
was promised for 1912. Elec. Ry. Jour., Nov. 19, 1910. 



References on New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad Electrification. 

Heft: Description of electric trains on branch lines, Nantasket Beach, 11 miles; 

Hartford, New Britain, Berlin lines, S. R. J., June, 1897; Sept., 1898; Aug. 25, 

Sept. 8, 1900. 
Providence, Warren & Bristol R. R., 14 miles, S. R. J., March 1, 1902. 
Middletown-Berlin-Meriden, 17 miles, S. R. J., Sept. 21, 1907. 
Hartford-Melrose Electrification, 25 miles, S. R. J., Dec. 7, 1907. 
New Canaan-Stamford branch, 8 miles, 11,000 volts, G. E. series-repulsion motors, 

E. W., Jan. 18, 1908, p. 139; E. R. J., May 15, 1909, p. 901. 
Westinghouse : Reason for Alternating-current, Comparative Cost of A.-C. and D.-C. 

Systems, S. R. J., Dec. 23, 1905. 
Sprague: An Unprecedented Railway Situation (Objections to the New Haven 

Plan for Trunk-hne Electrification), S. R. J., Oct. 21 and 28, 1905, Facts 

and Problems Bearing on Electric Trunk-Line Operation, A. I. E. E., May, 

1907. 
Lamme: The Alternating-current System, N. Y. Ry. Club, March 16, 1908; S. R. J., 

March 24 and April 14, 1906; Elec. Journal, April, 1906; July, 1906. 
McHenry: Reasons for Adopting Electricity, S. R. J., Aug. 17 and 24, and Oct. 12,. 

1907. Electrification, Ry. Age, Aug. 16, 1907. 
Organization: S. R. J., Oct. 12, 1907, p. 608. 
Murray: The .Single-phase Distribution, A. I.E.E., Jan., 1908. Steam and Electric 

Performance, A. I. E. E., Jan. 25, 1907. Log of New Haven Electrification, 

A. I. E. E., Dec, 1908; Steam Locomotive, Fuel and Maintenance, A. I. E. E., 

Jan., 1907, p. 148; Analysis of Electrification: A. I. E. E., April and June, 

1911. 
Boston Situation: E. R. J., Nov. 19, 1910. 

See references under History, Electric Systems, Motors, Locomotives, Transmis- 
sion and Contact Lines, Power for Trains, Power Plants, and Cost of Electrification. 



WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 541 

NEW YORK CENTRAL. 

New York Central & Hudson River Railroad electrification embraces 
4 main tracks from the Grand Central Terminal, New York, to Mott 
Haven junction, 5 miles from the terminal, thence continuing north on 
the Harlem Division to North White Plains, a total distance of 23.5 miles, 
and northwest on the Hudson Division to Hastings, 19.5 miles from the 
terminal. In time the work will be extended on the Hudson Division to 
Croton, 34 miles; and over 12 miles of the Putnam Division. 

Trains were first operated by electricity in the terminal Nov. 11, 1906, 
and the last steam train was taken off July 1, 1907. 

The adoption of electric traction for trains for the most important 
terminal and suburban work in the country marked an epoch in the 
application of electricity to train haulage, second only to the work at 
Baltimore in 1896. 

Grand Central Station yards, now being excavated, will have 42 main- 
line tracks on the street level and 24 suburban tracks, with loop tracks, 
about 12 feet below the level of the upper 42 tracks. The terminal with 
steam service had a capacity of 366 cars, while with electric service it will 
have 1149 cars. The cost of producing space for a car, exclusive of the 
cost of the station, is given as $30,000. Electric motive power changed 
old conditions, and it is now only necessary to provide sufficient head 
room for trains. Two-thirds of this work was completed before 1911. 

Electrification was compulsory. An act of the Legislature dated 
May 7, 1903, required electric motive power to be used after July, 1907. 
This act followed several accidents, caused by exhaust steam and 
smoke in a subway, and. one, on January 8, 1902, was unusually serious. 
Public comfort, safety, and convenience demanded the change. 

A commission of engineers appointed in 1904 to plan and execute the 
work was comprised of J. F. Deems and W. J. Wilgus of the New York 
Central, B. J. Arnold, F. J. Sprague, and George Gibbs, Consulting Engi- 
neers, with its secretary, E. B. Katte. These engineers fixed the princi- 
ples and policies which were afterward carried out under the jurisdiction 
of the chief engineer of electric traction, E. B. Katte. 

The system adopted was the 660-volt, direct-current, with a third rail, 
the only system then developed for railroad traction. 

Power stations, each with a capacity of 20,000 kilowatts, located at 
Port Morris and at Yonkers, have been described. 

f Transmission lines send 11,000-volt three-phase current to nine rotary 
converter substations, and direct current to the third rails. 

Electric locomotives are used for hauling thru trains; but motor cars 
are used for the suburban passenger service. The annual locomotive 
miles are now 1,200,000. There are 47 locomotives of 2200 h. p., 137 
motor cars of 480 h.p., each, and 63 trail coaches. 



542 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Cost of electrification and other work to 1910 have been as follows: 

Grand Central Station $11,000,000 

Real estate 10,500,000 

Four-tracking and station improvements 6,000,000 

Elimination of grade crossings 500,000 

Post office and office buildings, over tracks 4,000,000 

Electrification of 125 miles of single track 10,700,000 

Total cost to Croton and to N. White Plains (estimate) . . . $23,550,000 

Estimated cost of all terminal improvements $160,000,000 

Operating expenses for the 12 months endmg June 30, for electrical 
service, are shown by the following: 



Item. 1910 




1908 



! ' I 

Electric power transmission — maintenance $ $63,256 \ $217,451 

Electric locomotives — repairs and renewals ' 31,320 45,888 

Electric equipment of cars — repairs and renewals . 19,547 33,898 

Transportation expense— motormen 182,108 194,412 

Power plant equipment — maintenance 22,384 38,664 

Operating power plants 124,193 125,995 

Purchased power , , 2,301 , 2,483 



Proposed work for 1912 embraces the electrification of the entire 
freight line on the west side of Manhattan Island. This is a most ex- 
tensive project since these freight tracks bring to New York Cit}^ daily, 
and largely between midnight and morning, a large proportion of the 
food supply for Manhattan Island. There are practically no passenger 
trains moving between 1:00 and 6:00 A. M. With the freight service 
added, the load factor of the steam power plants will be raised, decreas- 
ing the cost of power, also greatly decreasing the investment per train- 
mile and per ton-mile hauled. 

References on New York Central & Hudson River Railroad Electrification. 

Arnold and Potter: Tests for Power Required, A. I. E. E., June, 1902. 

Wilgus: Electrification, S. R. J., Oct. 8, 1904. 

Descriptions and Tests: S. R. J., Nov. 19, 1904. 

Descriptions, general: S. R. J., 1905-6-7-8, particularly Oct. 12, 1907. 

Motor Cars and Coaches: S. R. J., Nov. 4, 1905; trucks, S. R. J., April 28, 1906. 

Power house: S. R. J., Sept. 29, 1906; Oct. 12, 1907. 

Transmission Lines: S. R. J., Nov. 18, 1905; Oct. 12, 1907. 

Substations: S. R. J., Nov. 3, 1906; Oct. 12, 1907. 

Sprague: Comparison with N. Y., N. H. & H. R. R., A. I. E. E., May 16, 1907, p. 746. 



WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 543 

Wilgus: Financial Results from Operation, Steam versus Electricity, A. S. C. E., 
Feb., 1908; S. R. J., March 7, 1908; Ry. Age, March 6, 1908. 

Auxiliary' Lines: Ry. Age Gazette, July 19, 1907, p. 67. 

Organization and Maintenance: S. R. J., Oct. 12, 1907. 

Maintenance Plant at Harmon, N. Y., S. R. J., June 8, 1907. 

Arrangement of Tracks at Grand Central Terminal, Ry. Age, Oct. 7, 1910; S. R. J., 
Nov. 18, 1905. 



WEST SHORE RAILROAD. 

West Shore Railroad is one of the New York Central lines. The 
company electrified 44 miles of road, or 114 miles of track, between Utica 
and Syracuse, in 1907, to shut off threatened competition of a chain of 
electric roads being built by strong interurban railways between Buffalo 
and Alban3^ The work was carried out by subsidiary companies, the 
Utica and Mohawk Valley, and the Oneida Railway. 

The road between the cities runs on the private right-of-way, over 
the 2, 3, and 4 tracks of the West Shore Railroad, both steam and 
electric trains using the same tracks," and over the city streets at 
terminals. 

Power from Niagara Falls is transmitted along the right-of-way on a 
steel-tower transmission line, to four rotary converter substations, 11 miles 
apart, where it is transformed from 60,000 volts and converted to 
direct-current at 600 volts. The contact line is a 70-pound protected 
third rail, except in the cities where a common 600-volt trolley is used. 

One- or two-car trains run half-hourly from each terminal. 

References. 

Descriptions, Tests, Service, Schedules, S. R. J., May 19, 1906; June 8, 1907; Oct. 12, 
1907, p. 581; G. E. Review, Aug., 1907. 



LONG ISLAND RAILROAD. 

Long Island Railroad, which is a subsidiary company of the Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad, since 1904 has operated electric trains from its Brooklyn 
terminals to points east on Long Island with numerous north and south 
branches, in a densely populated district. Much of the road in Brooklyn 
has been elevated to abolish grade crossings. Good connections are 
made in Brooklyn with the Interborough Rapid Transit subway and with 
the Brooklyn Elevated Railroad. The principal terminal, at Long Island 
City, is operated by steam locomotives. 

Long Island Railroad was the first large railroad to electrify its line on 
an extensive scale. The work began on its Atlantic Avenue line and on 
its Rockaway division. About 42 miles of route or 98 miles of track 



544 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

were completed in 1905, making the most extensive electric road 
for that period. About 44 miles of route or 100 miles of track were 
electrified prior to 1909; about 62 miles of route or 164 miles of track 
prior to 1910. 

Pennsylvania Railroad tunnels to and from Manhattan Island, which 
were completed in 1910, provide service outlets from New York to points 
near Long Island City, and further east to all points on the south side of 
Long Island, 24 miles distant. 

'' The electrification of the Long Island Railroad presents the first transformation 
of a regular steam road to electric traction. Branch lines of importance have been 
operated electrically, but this is the first extended electrification of main tracks." 

"The rapidity of traffic expansion (after electrification) is indicated by the fact 
that service provided for the year 1906 is four times the 4th of July service in 1902/' 
"The record breaking piece of work was remarkable. In 18 months the power 
station was constructed and ready for operation; 100 miles of track were elec- 
trified, 25 miles of conduit and 24 miles of pole line were constructed; 250 miles 
of high-tension conductors were erected; 5 substations were built and equipped; 
130 steel motor cars were built and equipped; 85 trail cars equipped; and the operation 
of the road begun" in 1905. Lyford, in Electric Journal, Jan., 1906. 

Direct current from a 600-volt third-rail line is used for power. 

Electric locomotives are not used for passenger or freight service. 

Motor-car trains handle the suburban passenger service. Equipment 
consists of 136 steel motor cars, each weighing 41 tons and equipped 
with two 200-h. p. motors per car for Brooklyn-Long Island service, 
and 66 wooden coaches each weighing 31 tons, for the above; also 225 
steel motor cars, each weighing 52 tons and equipped with two 210-h. p. 
motors per car for the New York-Long Island service. These have been 
described. Six-car trains are operated ordinarily, but trains of 8 to 12 
cars are used for heavy excursions. Speeds up to 55 m. p. h. are common 
and a schedule speed of 25 m. p. h. is maintained with stops 1.6 miles apart. 

The 32,500-kilowatt steam plant, used jointly by the Long Island and 
Pennsylvania, has been described. 

Results from the electrification were definitely announced by the Long 
Island Railroad in 1909. With 120 miles of its track electrically oper- 
ated, in 1908, the road was operating at sufficiently low cost, below steam 
operation, to pay the interest on the extra investment, and to yield a 
handsome surplus. The road was but recently operated with a deficit. 
The results are surprising, in view of the incompleteness of the installa- 
tion and the large expenditures at terminals, power plant, etc., from 
which only a small advantage is as yet derived. 

Long Island Railroad, in October, 1910, began the operation of electric 
trains from the Pennsylvania Railroad station in New York to Jamaica 
and other points in Long Island. 



WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 545 

OPERATING DATA FOR THE YEAR. LONG ISLAND RAILROAD. 1908. 

Cost per car-mile for electric railway service 17 . 80^ 

Cost per car-mile for steam railway service 27 . 95^ 

Ton-miles in electric passenger service 180,129,860 

Car-miles in electric passenger service 4,945,719 

Car-miles in steam passenger service 2,500,000 

Train-miles (3 . 94 cars per train) 1,251,877 

Maintenance expense of cars per car-mile 0.76^ 

Maintenance of electric equipment per car-mile 2.1 to 3.0^ 

Power-plant expenses per car-mile 3.3 to 3.5^ 

Direct current kilowatts used for traction 16,210,962 

Efficiency from power-house to substation output .813 

Watt-hours per ton-mile at substations 90 

Watt-hours per ton-mile at power house 110 

Cost per kw-hr. at power house . 697 ^ 

Cost per kw-hr. at cars 1 . 467 ^ 

Operating expenses for the 12 months ending June 30, for electrical 
service of the Pennsylvania Railroad are shown by the following: 



Item. 



1910. 



1909. 



1908. 



Electric power transmission — maintenance 

Electric locomotives — repairs and renewals 

Electric equipment of cars — repairs and renewals 

Transportation expense — motormen 

Power-plant equipment — maintenance 

Operating power plants 

Purchased power for third-rail service 



$96,704 



104,854 

92,339 

11,885 

139,460 

210,598 



$87,008 



65,632 

81,158 

9,590 

149,754 

198,610 



PENNSYLVANIA TUNNEL & TERMINAL. 

Pennsylvania Railroad Company, thru its late President, A. J. Cassatt, 
conceived and planned a system of tunnels, terminals, yards, and bridges 
to the north, to unite New Jersey, Manhattan, Long Island, and New- 
England with an all-rail route. The tunnels and stations are no longer 
a dream. The stupendous project, requiring the expenditure of 
$160,000,000 became practical, because of the development of safe and 
reliable operation of heavy trains by electricity thru long tunnels and on 
heavy grades to an underground terminal station. 

Pennsylvania Tunnel & Terminal Company operates the terminal 

station and yards of the Pennsylvania Railroad at New York City. This 

station has from 21 to 36 tracks, about 3600 ft. long. There are two 

tunnels between Manhattan Island and New Jersey under the Hudson 

35 



546 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

River, four tunnels between Manhattan Island and Long Island City 
under the East River, and extensive terminal and storage yards at 
Sunnyside on Long Island. The work on Manhattan Island was com- 
pleted in 1910. 

The route miles of the Pennsylvania Tunnel and Terminal Company's 
tracks between Harrison, N. J., and Sunnyside Yards, L. I., are 14.9, of 
which 9.83 are on the surface, 2.29 under the two rivers, and 2.78 under- 
ground. The track mileage which has been arranged for electric power 
now aggregates 95, inclusive of terminal yards. 

The direct-current 660-volt system was adopted because its sub- 
sidiary road, the Long Island, had previously expended $1,000,000 on its 
direct-current equipment. The power station has been described. The 
third-rail is T-shaped, 4 inches high, with a 4-inch top face, weighs 150 
pounds per yard, and is equivalent to a 2,475,000 cm. copper conductor. 

Electric locomotives are used for Pennsylvania, Chesapeake & Ohio, 
and other thru trains in and out of New York City. 

Motor cars are now used by the Long Island Railroad for all thru 
and suburban trains to all points less than 30 miles distant on Long Island. 

Service planned for the ultimate passenger work is 600 Long Island 
and 400 Pennsylvania trains in and out of the station daily. The train 
service in 1911 consisted of a total of 88 Pennsylvania and 310 Long 
Island trains in and out per week-day. 

A rapid transit electric motor-car train service is to be operated 
jointly with Hudson & Manhattan Railroad, in 1911, between Newark 
and the old Pennsylvania terminal in Jersey City, 9 miles, and the H. & M. 
tunnels to the lower part of Manhattan Island. 

WEST JERSEY & SEASHORE. 

West Jersey & Seashore Railroad, of the Pennsylvania Railroad, 
extends from Camden, opposite Philadelphia, to Atlantic City. 

The service is largely passenger work on a trunk line, 65 miles long, 
with service at frequent intervals over the entire length, and with service 
at one end of the line of some density. During the height of the summer 
season, 3-and 4-car trains run on a 15-minute headway in each direction, 
at high speeds. Baggage, mail, express, milk, and other motor cars run 
either in or separate from the passenger trains. The winter service, 
10,000 car-miles per day, is about one-half of the summer service. 

The electric construction work was completed within 9 months of- 
the commencement of the work, which is remarkable. Operation began 
July 1, 1906. 

Miles of main route are 65, with a 10-mile branch, near the middle of 
the line. The total electric mileage is 150. 

Reasons for electrification were entirely economical. The traffic had 



WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 547 

not been decreasing, but the expenses were increasing. There was 
some local business, along the route which could be handled more 
economically and expeditiously by electric traction than was possible 
with steam. The electrification also forestalled a proposed competing 
parallel electric road. 

The electric system, chosen in 1906, was the direct-current, 675-volt, 
with an unprotected top-current third rail. 

Power station contains twelve 350-h.p. Stirling boilers and four 2000- 
kw., 6600-volt, 25-cycle turbo-generators. Transmission line consists 
of 70 miles of duplicate 33,000-volt line on 45-ft. wooden poles. 

Substations for the 75 miles of route number 8, each containing 2 
or 3 rotary converters, of 500, 750, or 1000 kilowatts; total capacity 
17,000 kilowatts. Traffic in winter is light and the expense for up-keep 
of the rotary converters per train-mile then doubles. The operating 
expense of the rotary converter substations for the cross-country service 
furnished are a handicap which is proportionately greater than for 
terminal and congested traffic. Freight trains cannot be handled eco- 
nomically with the system and equipment installed. 

Motor cars number 63 for passenger, baggage, and mail service, 
weighing 48 tons, and 15 steel motor cars weighing 52 tons. Two 240-h. p. 
motors are used per car. Cars are given a general overhauling in the 
shops every 50,000 miles. The motors are painted, the fields removed 
and cleaned, the armatures blown out, and the fields and armatures are 
given a coat of insulating paint. Controllers and minor equipment are 
given a general cleaning and painting at overhaulings, at least once per 
year. Car detentions average one per 15,000 miles. Speed in thru 
service averages 43 m. p. h. and in local service 26 to 32 m. p. h. 

Results from operation have been excellent : 

Gross earnings increased at the rate of less than 2 per cent, per year 
until the road was electrified; while each year after electrification the 
gross earnings have increased 11 per cent. Electrification made the 
road popular. 

Operating expenses during 1908 were 20.46 cents per car-mile for 
electric service, as against 22.30 cents per car-mile for steam service. 
During 1*909 operating expenses were 18.75 cents; and during 1910 were 
18.19 cents per car-mile. The saving over steam was nearly 7 cents per 
car-mile which, on over 4,550,000 car-miles per year, was over $300,000 
per year in favor of electrical operation. The cost of steam service is 
increasing. The average cars per train with steam service are seven, or. 
twice that for the electric service. 

Cost of electrification to 1911 is given as $3,650,000. The electrical 
investment now produces a saving of 8.2 per cent, to pay the annual 
interest charges on the investment. 



548 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



OPERATING DATA 


. WEST JERSEY & SEASHORE. 




Year. 


1910. 


1909. 


1908. 


1907. 


Kilowatt hours from power plant 

Kilowatt hours from substations. . 


28,312,500 

21,972,300 

.816 

$2,235 

0.542 

3.250 

$153,449 

4,552,532 

$.1819 

$.2500 


23,551,200 


22,887,600 


21,118,800 


Efficiency of h.t. lines and substations.. . 
Cost of coal per 2000 pounds .... 


.784 


.738 


.722 


Cost per kw-hr. at power plant, (^ 

Pounds of coal per kw-hour 

Cost of power, total 

Car-miles, 3 5 cars per train 


0.555 
3.300 


0.592 
3.370 


0.680 
3.670 


4,107,609 

$.1875 






Total cost per mile, electric 

Total cost per car -mile, steam 


$.2046 
$. 2230 











Philadelphia terminal electrification has been worked out by a board 
of engineers appointed by the Pennsylvania road. The plans developed 
and adopted include the electrification of all suburban lines radiating 
from the Broad Street, North Philadelphia, and West Philadelphia 
stations. The estimated cost of the electrification was $14,000,000. 

References on Pennsylvania Railroad Electrifications. 

Long Island R. R: 

Lyford and Smith: A. I. E. E., Nov., 1904; Smith: S. R. J., June 9, 1906. 

Lyford: General outHne of work, Elec. Journal, Jan., 1906. 

Cars: 37-ton, S. R. J., Aug. 11, 1906; Ry. Age, Aug. 12, 1906. 

Trucks: Of steel passenger car, E. R. J., June 27, 1908. 

Electrification: S. R. J., Nov. 19, 1904, Nov. 4, 1905; Oct. 12, 1907. 

Power House: S. R. J., Jan. 5, 1905; April 7, 1906; Oct. 12, 1907, p. 587. 

Operating Statistics: Ry. and Engr. Review, Feb. 12, 1908; E. R. J., Mar. 26, 1911, 
p. 532. 

McCrea: New York R. R. Club, March, 1911; Ry. Age March, 1911, p. 689. 
Pennsylvania Tunnel & Terminal R. R. : 

General data: S. R. J., Oct., 1907, p. 587. 

Contract: $5,000,000 with Westingliouse for power house, substations, and loco- 
motives for work from Newark, N. J., to Jamaica, L. I., S. R. J. Nov. 7, 1908. 

Locomotives: 157-ton, 2500-h. p., E. R. J., Nov. 6, 1909; R. R. Age, Nov. 5, 1909. 
West Jersey and Sea Shore R. R. : 

Descriptive: S. R. J., Dec. 23, 1905; Nov. 10, 1906; Oct. 12, 1907. 

Operating Statistics: E. R. J., March 26, 1911, p. 532. 

Wood: Operation of the W. J. & S., A. I. E. E., June, 1911; E. R. J., July 1, 1911. 
Philadelphia Terminal: 

Proposed Electrification: E. T. W., Jan. 14, 1911, p. 44; E. W., June 11, p. 1578. 

HUDSON & MANHATTAN. 



Hudson & Manhattan Railroad Company operates tunnel lines from 
a station near Grand Central Station, New York City, thence south and 



WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 549 

west to Hoboken, via two tunnels under the Hudson River, thence south 
in New Jersey to Jersey City, thence east via two tunnels under Hudson 
River to the Hudson Terminal Building in lower New York, near the 
Broadway connections to the Rapid Transit subway. Total route length 
8; mileage 18. An extension runs from Jersey City west to Newark, 
N. J., 9 miles, and connects with the main line of the Pennsylvania 
Railroad. 

Motor cars consist of 216 steel cars which now run in 6-car trains. 
Each car is a 35-ton motor car, equipped with two 160-h. p. motors. 

Traffic is dense but the haul is short. Trains carry 50 per cent, 
more passengers per car-mile than New York subway trains. 

The system is the 660-volt, direct-current, third-rail. 

References. 

Maps, steel tubes, third rail, and substations, S. R. J., Nov. 25, 1905; E. R. J., Feb. 
29, 1908. Cars: S. R. J., June 8, 1907; E. R. J., Oct. 2, 1909. Passenger stations: 
■ S. R. J., March 9, 1907. Power plant: E. R. J., March 5, 1910. 

BALTIMORE & ANNAPOLIS. 

Baltimore & Annapolis Short Line, owned by the Maryland Electric 
Railways, runs entirely on a private right-of-way from the B. & 0. sta- 
tion at Baltimore to Annapolis. Passenger service of a high grade began 
in January, 1909. Miles of route are 26 and the total mileage is 35. 

Reasons for change from steam to electricity were: '^Increased car 
mileage, more frequent service, express service at least as fast, cleaner 
service, and the sentimental and indefinable inherent attraction in elec- 
trical operation." Competition with parallel lines also existed. 

The equipment consists of twelve 50-ton, 400-h.p., passenger cars 
with M. C. B. couplers for interchangeable steam railroad service. 

The electric system chosen was the single-phase, 25-cycle, with a 6,600- 
volt trolley. Pantographs are used as collectors. 

Power is purchased. The one substation is located near the middle of 
the line and contains three 300-kv-a., 22,000- to 6,600-volt step-down 
transformers. The substation is inspected daily. 

Operating results have been excellent, because of good management 
and equipment. The road runs entirely on a private right-of-way. 
Baltimore and Annapolis steam service consisted of 14 trains each way 
per day. The present daily car-mileage is 2500 and the schedule speed 
is 32 m. p. h. 

Reference. 

Whitehead, A. I. E. E., July 1, 1908, describes the change from steam to electric 
power, gives data on several plans, speed-time and power curves, cost of equip- 
ment, and cost of operation by either direct current or alternating current. 



550 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

BALTIMORE & OHIO. - 

Baltimore & Ohio Railroad in 1905 began the use of electric power for 
its switching service and for train haulage thru the belt line tunne^ at 
Baltimore. The 12 locomotives now used have been described. 

The initial management of the electrical property, after the intro- 
duction of electric power, was bad. The feeders were small, the first 
rail bonds were inadequate, and the new rail bonds placed around the 
rail joints were stolen. The overhead third rail (a double channel) was a 
failure because of its rigidity and the corrosion by steam locomotive gases. 
A 70-pound third rail was then located on the ties. A sectionalized 
third-rail scheme which was tried was a failure. 

Operating and maintenance costs of an antiquated power plant, con- 
taining high-speed, non-condensing engines, were heavy. The power load 
was difficult to handle because the locomotives carried heavy loads up 
the grades and used no power on the down grades. 

The locomotives themselves received but little attention, and they 
were allowed to depreciate. They had a hard time for existence, but they 
won out. Train haulage by electric power was made successful, and the 
installation, as a whole, marked an epoch in railroading. 

The 1896 locomotives were successful, considering both the impor- 
tance of the installation and the design of equipment 15 years ago. 

Power is now purchased and is delivered thru a 3000-kilowatt sub- 
station. The maximum fluctuating load, when 4 locomotives or 2 trains 
are operated, is about 4500 kilowatts. More than 2 trains are not 
allowed on the line at one time. The locomotives make 200,000 miles, 
and haul 60,000,000 ton-miles up the grades, per annum. 

The equipment is now in the hands of competent railroad men and 
excellent operating results are being obtained. 

Enthusiasts supposed that this installation was a forerunner of large 
and immediate electrifications of steam railroads. It has been stated 
that, in 1905, the officials of the railroad, being pleased with the physical 
and financial results, had estimates made for electric service over the 
Allegheny mountains. These estimates were based on the haulage of 
trains of double length, at double speed, making a great reduction in the 
number of trains. Locomotives were to be controlled by a single crew, 
congestion was to be prevented, time saved, and capacity gained in 
service. The estimates for electrification showed that suitable locomo- 
tives could be purchased, but the enormous cost of copper with the direct- 
current system, and the placing of rotary converters 3 to 4 miles apart, 
made electrification absolutely prohibitive. High voltages had to be used 
for the contact line, to reduce the number of transformer substations. 

Operating expenses for the 12 months ending June 30, for electrical 
service, are shown by the following: 



WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 551 



Item. 


1910. 


1909. 


1908. 


Electric power transmission — maintenance 

Electric locomotives — repairs and renewals 


$ 


$5,525 

7,776 



16,087 

26,852 

71,284 


$11,898 
16,475 


Electric equipment of cars — repairs and renewals. . . 







Transportation expenses — motormen 




15,515 


Power-plant equipment — maintenance 




9,275 


Operating power plants 




74,254 










References on Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Electrification. 

Early Plans: Elec. Engr., Nov. 6, 1895, Mar. 4, 1896; S. R. J., March 14 and Aug. 22, 

1903; July, 1895. S. R. Review, April 26, 1902. 
Third rail: S. R. J., March 2 and Dec. 14, 1901; July 30, 1904. 
Muhlfield: Steam versus Electric Locomotives, N. Y. R. R. Club, Feb., 1906; S. R. J., 

Feb. 24, 1906. 
Hutchinson: Mountain Electrification on Altoona grades, Elec. Age, 1904. 
Davis: Operating Data, A. I. E. E., Nov., 1909, p. 1330. 

See technical descriptions of Electric Locomotives in Chapter VIII. 

MICHIGAN CENTRAL. 

Michigan Central Railroad hauls its freight and passenger trains thru 
its new Detroit River 7860-foot tunnels between Detroit, Michigan, and 
Windsor, Ontario, with six 100-ton electric locomotives. Service began 
in August, 1910. Power is purchased from the Detroit Edison Co., and 
two 1000-kilowatt motor-generators and a storage battery are used. The 
direct-current, 660-volt, third-rail system is used on 6 miles of route and 
19 miles of track. See references under description of the locomotive. 

The present daily traffic is 1100 freight cars and 16 passenger trains. 

GRAND TRUNK. 

Grand Trunk Railway electrified its tunnel under the St. Clair River 
between Port Huron and Sarnia in 1908. The length of the electric zone 
is 4 miles but including the tracks, which are 4 to 10 deep at terminals, 
the electric mileage is 12. 

This was the first American electrification of an important tunnel 
wherein a high-voltage trolley was used. The tunnel has a small bore, 
and 3300 volts was used for safety, and because it was high enough for 
the short distance. 

The six 66-ton electric locomotives, motors, power plant, service, 
economy, etc., were outlined in the technical description of locomotives. 

Grand Trunk Railway had plans made in 1910 for the electrification 
of its road near Montreal. The project embraces the city passenger 



552 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



terminal and the road to the Victoria bridge over the St. Lawrence River; 
and it has purchased the Montreal & Southern Counties Electric Railway, 
a 6-mile road between Montreal and St. Lambert. 

ERIE RAILROAD. 

Erie Railroad Company has, since June, 1907, operated a 37-mile 
single-track electric branch, between Rochester and Mt. Morris, N. Y., 
for passenger service over steam railroad tracks. 

Electrification was for the purpose of preventing competition and for 
economy of operation. There was also a desire to try out electric traction. 

Power is transmitted over the Niagara, Lockport & Ontario Power 
Company's 3-phase, 165-mile line, at 60,000 volts. A substation, 
located at Avon near the middle of the road, contains three 750-kw., 
60,000- to 11,000-volt transformers. Single-phase, 25-cycle, 11,000- 
volt power is used. 

Cars consist of six 48-ton motors, and six 28-ton coaches. Three or 
four car trains are operated on the multiple-unit plan. Each motor car 
has four 100-h.p. motors. 

Operating results published are to the effect that the gross earnings 
for passenger service, based on ticket sales, have increased 40 to 50 per 
cent.; also that the operating cost under the usual operating and main- 
tenance headings of the Interstate Commerce Commission averages 18 
cents per car-mile. The motor-car mileage per annum is 250,000, and 
the trail car mileage 75,000. 

Operating expenses for the 12 months ending June 30, for electrical 
service, are shown by the following: 



Item. 



1910. 



1909. 



1908. 



Electric power transmission — maintenance 

Electric locomotives — repairs and renewals 

Electric equipment of cars — repairs and renewals . 

Transportation expense — motormen 

Power-plant equipment — maintenance 

Operating power plants 

Purchased power 



$1,874 


$2,475 








11,286 


14,796 


5,379 


5,300 








213 


580 


15,941 


17,499 



References. 

Operation: S. R. J., Oct. 12, 1907, pp. 629 and 650; June 19, 1909. 
Power Transmission: 165 miles, S. R. J., July 14, Aug. 25, Dec. 8, 1906. 
Lyford: on Operation, A. I. E. E., Dec. 11, 1908, p. 1696. 
W. N. Smith: Ry. Age, Oct. 11, 1907, S. R. J , Oct. 12, 1907. 

Proposed Electrification of Birmingham-Corning, N. Y,, 76-mile division, to head off 
competition, S. R. J., Dec. 23, 1905, p. 1118. 



WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 



553 



CHICAGO, BURLINGTON & QUINCY. 

Denver & Interurban Railroad, a part of the Colorado and Southern, 
in turn, a part of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, is a high- 
grade railroad betAveen Denver and Boulder, Colorado. About 44 miles 
of track were electrified in 1906. 

The reason for electrification was due to the opportunity to utilize 
water power to reduce the motive-power expense of steam passenger 
train operating on heavy grades. 

The system used is the single-phase, 25-cycle, 11,000-volt for a. c- 
d. c. service. The overhead work includes catenary construction, phono- 
electric trolley wire of high tensile strength, galvanized steel brackets, 
and wooden poles. 

Power is furnished by the plant of the Northern Colorado Power Co., 
from two 1000-kw. single-phase turbo-generators. 

Motor cars are 16, each equipped with four 125-h. p. geared motors. 
The weight of the motor cars is 58 tons, of the coaches is 37 tons, and 
two-car trains are ordinarily operated. 

References. 

Deadwood Central R. R. : Black Hills grades, Deadwood to Leads City, S. D., 

S. R. J., Nov. 22, 1902, p. 841. 
Denver & Interurban R. R., S. R. J., Sept. 24, 1904; Oct. 2, 1909. 
Colorado Springs & Cripple Creek Ry., E. R. J., Oct. 2, 1909. 

Operating expenses for the 12 months ending June 30, for electrical 
service, are shown by the following: 



Item. 



1910. 



1909. 



1908. 



Electric power transmission — maintenance 

Electric locomotives — repairs and renewals 

Electric equipment of cars — repairs and renewals . 

Transportation expenses — motormen 

Power-plant equipment — maintenance 

Operating power plants 

Purchased power 



$ ! $1,157 



2,167 

5,198 

601 

3,000 

11,000 



$1,526 

2,840 
5,333 
436 
3,177 
9,645 



SPOKANE & INLAND EMPIRE. 



Spokane & Inland Empire Railroad furnished the first example of 
the extensive use of single-phase railroad equipment. The road has a 
private right-of-way and private terminals, freight and passenger. Water 
power is used to haul all electric trains. Operation started in 1906. 



554 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Route miles approximate 180; single-track mileage is 287; and the 
mileage of the single-phase road is 162. The longest runs are from 
Spokane south to Colfax, 77 miles, with a branch to Moscow, 91 miles 
from Spokane. 

Reasons for electrification have been stated as speculative, and a 
desire to open up a new country. The use of electric power was due to 
the splendid water powers available. 

The system used is the a. c.-d. c, single-phase, 6600-volt, 25-cycle. 
The equipment consists of 21 motor cars, each equipped with four 100-h.p. 
motors; six 500-h. p. locomotives, and eight 680-h. p. locomotives. 

The direct-current equipment is used for a street railway and for a 
direct-current, 46-mile road to Hayden Lake. 

Transmission lines consist of 116 miles of 45,000-volt, No. 2 copper 
wire. Catenary lines are supported from brackets on cedar poles. Sub- 
stations consist of 11 transformer houses, spaced about 10 miles apart, 
each containing two 375-kw., 45,000-volt to 6600-volt, oil-insulated, self- 
cooled transformers. 

References on Spokane & Inland Empire Railroad Electrification. 

General: S. R. J., Feb. 11, Oct. 14, 1905; Apr. 27, 1907. 

Cars: S. R. J., Nov. 10, 1906. 

Water Power: S. R. J., March 9, 1907; Jan. 11, 1908; E. W., Oct. 10, 1908. 

Load and Batteries: S. R. J., Sept. 28, 1907. 

Report to State Railroad Commissioners: S. R. J., Nov. 2, 1907. 

Annual Report: June 30, 1908, E. R. J., Oct. 10, 1908. 

IngersoU: Cost of Equipment, Elec. Journal, Aug., 1906. 



GREAT NORTHERN RAILWAY. 

Great Northern Railway electrified 6 miles of tunnel and terminal 
track at Cascade Mountain tunnel, in Washington in 1909. The tunnel 
is 14,400 ft. long, on a 1.7 per cent, grade. 

The system is the 25-cycle, 6,000-volt, 3-phase. 

Power plant, of 7,500-kw. capacity, and line, have been described. 
Cost of electrification was about $1,620,000. 

Electric locomotive equipment consists of four G. E., 115-ton articu- 
lated machines, each equipped with four 500-volt, one-speed, geared, three- 
phase motors, rated 1900-h. p. on forced draft. These are the first three- 
phase locomotives in America. The installation, see technical descrip- 
tion, is quite different from the three-phase installations made by Ganz, 
Brown-Boveri, Westinghouse, and Oerlikon. 

Service is infrequent but heavy, and 1900-ton freight trains are hauled 
up the grade by three locomotives per train, while passenger trains re- 
quire two locomotives per train. 



WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 555 

Electric roads controlled by the Great Northern-Northern Pacific 
include the Oregon Electric, the United Railwaj^s of Portland, and others. 

References. 

References on Great Northern Railway, Cascade Tunnel Electrification. 

General: G. E. Bulletin 4537, Sept., 1907; G. E. Review, Slichter, Aug., 1910. 
General: S. R. J., May 11, Dec. 28, 1907; Oct. 31, 1908. 
System: Hutchinson, A. I. E. E., Nov., 1909. 
Contact Line: Deneen, A. I. E. E., Nov., 1909. 



SOUTHERN PACIFIC. 

Southern Pacific Company operates trains with electricity on the 
following roads: 

1. Visalia Electric Railway, 36 miles of track. See technical descrip- 
tion of its 15-cycle electric locomotives. 

2. Suburban lines from moles or breakwaters in San Francisco Bay to 
and in Berkeley, 10 miles; to and in Alameda, 7 miles; in and thru Oak- 
land and Fruitvale to Melrose, 8 miles from the bay ; in all about 30 miles of 
double track, much of which is on city streets. The 1200-volt direct- 
current, overhead trolley system is used. 

The power house is located on the Oakland estuary. It contains 
twelve 645-h.p. water-tube Parker boilers, fed by fuel oil, one 14-foot 
by 125-foot unlined steel stack, two Westinghouse double-flow turbo- 
generators rated 5000 kw. for 1 hour, 7500 kw. for 2 hours, and 10,000 
kw. for 1 minute, which supply three-phase, 25-cycle current at 13,000 
volts to three substations, each containing six G. E. 750-kw., 600-volt 
rotary converters, set in pairs, connected permanently in series, and 
mounted on a common base. 

3. Peninsula Railroad between Mayfield, Congress Junction, Saratoga. 
San Jose, New Meriden Corners, Monta Vista, Los Altos, Mayfield, and 
Palo Alto, over double track, one of which tracks is used for steam trains. 
The electric mileage is 40. Elec. Ry. Journ., January 20, 1910, page 204. 

4. Pacific Electric Railway, having 600 miles of track,, and Los 
Angeles-Pacific Railway having 260 miles of track. Elec. Ry. Journ., 
November 26, 1910, page 1079. 

5. Los Angeles & Redondo Ry., interurban divisions, 100 miles. 

6. Street railways in Ontario, Redlands, San Bernardino, River- 
side, San Jose, Fresno, Santa Monica freight road, etc. 

Electrification of the Sierra District, Sacramento Division has 
been considered since 1907. The division runs from Reno, Nevada, to 
Sacramento, California, over the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and has 
140 miles of road or 200 miles of track. It has a 7000-foot rise in 83 
miles, 1.54 per cent, average grade, and a 2.2 per cent, maximum grade. 



556 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Electrification would prevent double-tracking the road and would increase 
the carrying capacity of a single line of rails. Expert reports were to the 
effect that the road could be operated with electric power for 62 per cent, 
of the expense of operation by steam, using water power from the Great 
Western Power Company. St. Ry. Journ., Dec. 14, 1907, p. 1154. 

The specifications issued (see Frank J. Sprague's data to A. I. E. E., 
Nov., 1907, and July, 1910) call for increased capacity by doubling the 
speed, viz. to 15 m. p. h. for 2000-ton freight and 30 m. p. h. for 400-ton 
passenger trains, up 2.2 per cent, grades. 

The cost of electrification will be large, but the increased capacity on 
the grades is expected to justify the outlay. Estimates made on cutting 
new tunnels and lowering the grade to 1.5 per cent, showed the cost to 
be from 40 to 50 million and the time required eight years. Electrifica- 
tion is estimated to cost 13 millions and the time required 2 years. 
Electric haulage would also reduce the non-revenue tonnage 20 per cent. 

Mallet compounds are now in service on this grade. These are 
2400-h.p., 300-ton, oil-burning locomotives having economical boilers. 
Steam is used in the engines at long cut-offs, making them very waste- 
ful. See description and tests in Chapter II. Their capacity is 1000 
trailing tons at 10 miles per hour up 2.0 per cent, grades and 1855 tons 
up 1.5 per cent, grades. 

Julius Kruttschnitt, Vice-President, stated in 1910, regarding the 
power problem over the Sierras : 

''Electrification for mountain traffic does not carry the same appeal that it did 
two years ago. Oil-burning locomotives are solving the problem very, satisfactorily. 
Each Mallet compound locomotive hauls as great a load as two of the consolidation 
type, burning 10 per cent, less fuel and consuming 50 per cent less water." 

References. 

Power Plant for Alameda Lines, E. R. J., Feb. 4, 1911, p. 196. 

Electrification of Sacramento Division, S. R. J., Aug. 31, 1907. 

Sprague: A. I. E. E., Nov., 1909; Harriman, E. W., March 16, 1907, page 538. 

Grade Reduction to Prevent Electrification: Ry. Age Gazette, Feb. 18, 1910, p. 344. 

Locomotive Tests, Ry. Age Gazette, Jan. 14, 1910, p. 91. 



TECHNICAL DATA ON PROPOSED RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATIONS. 

BOSTON & ALBANY. 

Boston & Albany Railroad, owned by New York Central, in Nov., 
1910, filed plans with a Committee appointed by the Massachusetts 
State Legislature for the electrification of 128 miles of its 4-track road 
between Boston and South Farmington, Mass., a distance of 21 miles. 
Its plans embrace the use of the 1200-volt, direct-current, third-rail 



AVORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 557 

system with multiple-unit passenger cars for local trains and electric 
locomotives for thru trains. The plans embrace electrification for 65 per 
cent, of all Boston & Albany trains leaving Boston. 

Large possibilities for greater net earnings are suggested by a greater 
traffic to be induced, by reduction of fares, and trains at short intervals. 
Elec. Ry. Journ., Nov. 19, 26, 1910. See estimates, page 513. 

DELAWARE, LACKAWANNA & WESTERN. 

Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad, as early as 1899, con- 
sidered the electrification of its suburban tracks in New Jersey. See 
A. I. E. E., 1900, Vol. XVII, page 106. 

A mountain-grade electrification near Scranton, Pa., received con- 
sideration in 1909 and 1910. The proposed electric division runs from 
Clark's Summit, which is 7 miles north of Scranton, to Lehigh, which is 
19 miles south of Scranton, or to Mt. Pocono, 34 miles south of Scranton. 
Electrification is expected to reduce expenses incident to the use of 
three steam locomotives per train working on 1.5 per cent, grades. 

ILLINOIS CENTRAL. 

Illinois Central Railroad, at Chicago, presents one of the greatest 
terminal electrification problems. The road and terminal are spread 
along the shore of Lake Michigan, adjoining the residence district, a 
valuable park, and the principal boulevard. The congestion at the ter- 
minal is such that the yards could even be double-decked; the enclosure 
of the tracks by warehouses might work out to advantage. 

City Councils of Chicago have not as yet succeeded in getting the 
railroad to formulate plans for electrification. Electric traction on sub- 
urban trains is held back until electrification of all freight and passenger 
trains can be included. 

Electrification has repeatedly received consideration. Good prece- 
dent has shown that the extra investment would be more than offset 
by increase in traffic, reduction in operating expenses, and low cost of 
central station power in combined switching, terminal, and suburban 
service. 

The problem involves 25 miles of 8-, 6-, and 4-track route, between 
Flossmar and Chicago; 35 trains with an average weight of 410 tons, in 
service simultaneously; 12,300-kw. maximum load; 35 per cent, load 
factor; and 6500 train-miles daily, 5700 being in suburban traffic. In all : 

Suburban trains, daily 400, with 1,000,000 ton-miles. 

Thru trains, daily 100, with 500,000 ton-miles. 

Freight trains, daily 200, with 2,000,000 ton-miles. 

Switch trains, daily 400, with 2,000,000 ton-miles. 



558 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Estimated cost per mile is based on the following: Steel transmission 
lines, one three-phase circuit, $4000; double three-phase circuit, $6000; 
conduit transmission lines, $20,000; third rail per mile $6400. 

Power can be purchased at the rate of . 75 cent per kw-hr. 

Illinois Central electrification is held to be unjustifiable, even for 
the suburban traffic. President Harahan submitted the statement be- 
low of the results which are estimated to follow if the entire suburban 
service alone were electrified, compared with present steam operation. 

Results of operation of suburban business at Chicago for the fiscal year 
ending June 30, 1909, under steam: 

Gross earnings $1,056,446 

Operating expenses (82.9 per cent.) plus taxes 946,734 

Net revenue (steam operation) $ 109,712 

Estimated results under electrification: 

Gross earnings $1,056,446 

Operating expenses (66 per cent.) plus taxes 771,681 

Net revenue (electric operation) 284,765 

Net revenue (steam operation) 109,712 

Increase in net earnings 175,053 

Estimate cost of electrification $8,000,000 

Interest and depreciation, 10 per cent 800,000 

Saving in operation under electrification 175,003 

Net deficit under electrical operation $624,947 

The statement may be badly warped because the assumption is 
made that electrification will cost $8,000,000, while other valuable es- 
timates for the same track-mileage are $3,500,000; and the assumption 
is made that electrification will not increase the gross earnings, i. e., 
attract traffic and regain lost business. Other roads within a few years 
after electrification have increased their gross earnings 50 to 90 per cent. 

Chicago terminal electrification, which embraces 25 steam railroads 
at Chicago, was merged in 1911 with that of the Illinois Central Railroad. 

A terminal electrification commission is now employed by the 
Chicago Association of Commerce, being paid by all of the steam rail- 
roads, to report on the necessity for electrification, the mechanical feasi- 
bility, and financial problems of the undertaking. 

Horace G. Burt is chief engineer of this Commission. George Gibbs 
and E. R. Hill, who have worked out electrifications of the New York 
Central, Long Island, West Jersey, and Philadelphia terminals, have 
been appointed consulting engineers, with Mr. Hugh Pattison, formerly 
Superintendent of Construction of the Pennsylvania terminals at New 
York City, as electrical engineer in direct charge of the work. 

The rearrangement of steam tracks, the elimination of thru freight 



WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 559 

from the business district, and the much-needed revision of freight yards 
are being studied by George R. Henderson, consulting engineer. 
Actual work on electrification may not begin prior to 1915. 

References on Illinois Central Railroad Electrification. 

Sprague: A. I. E. E., June, 1892. 

WaUace: A. S. C. E., Feb. 3, 1897; S. R. J., July, 1899, p. 468. 
Suburban cars: S. R. J., July 4, 1903; April 30, 1904. 
Practicability of Electrification, E. R. J., Oct. 31, 1908, p. 1290. 
Engineering News: Comment on Electrification, Dec. 24, 1908. 
Symons: On Electrification, Western Railway Club, Feb. 19, 1908. 
Seley: On Electrification, .Western Railway Club, Nov., 1909; Ry. Age, Nov. 26, 1909. 
Harahan: Reports, R. R. Age, Oct., 1909, p. 812; E. R. J., Oct. 30, 1909. 
Cost of Electrification: E. R. J., Oct. 24, 1908, p. 1261. 
Evans: Reports to City Council, 1909, on terminal electrification. 
Delano: Chicago City Terminals, Ry. Age, Dec. 24, 1909. 
Extent of Electrification: E. R. J., Oct. 2, 1909, p. 608. 
Objections to Electric Traction: Illinois Central, near end of Chapter III. 
Bird: Locomotive Smoke in Chicago, Ry. Age, Feb. 17, 1911, p. 321; E. R. J., Feb. 
18, 1911, p. 305. 

CANADIAN PACIFIC. 

Canadian Pacific Railway Company controls two electric railways : 

Aroostock Valley Railroad, Maine, a 12-mile, 1200-volt railway. 

Hull, Ottawa, Ajdmer Division, 26 miles. See description of loco- 
motives, Elec. Engineer, October 7, 1896. 

In Ottawa, the company has completed plans, involving about 
$1,000,000, for the electrical operation of an underground tunnel road, 
from a point near the foot of the Rideau Canal to the union station; 
or for a belt line around the city. Elec. Ry. Journ., August 20, 1910. 

Rocky Mountain grades, in the past, have frequently been reduced 
by doubling the length of the winding track. The grades on many 
divisions are severe, and only a part of ordinary train loads are 
hauled; yet each train requires 3 to 4 of the largest locomotives. 
Operation with such groups is- dangerous. Economy with steam power, 
when so used, is evidently low. Water power is abundant in the moun- 
tains, could be utilized to advantage for electrical operation of trains, 
and would prevent expensive grade reduction. 

BUTTE, ANACONDA & PACIFIC. 

Butte, Anaconda & Pacific Railway, owned by Anaconda Copper 
Company, had plans drawn in 1910 for the complete electrification of 
its steam railroad from Butte to Anaconda, Montana, 26 miles. The 
two cities are located on hills and a deep valley intervenes. Tracks for 



560 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

storage, mines, terminals, and branches are extensive and the total 
mileage for which electrification is considered exceeds 50, of 80 total. 

Ruling grades on the main line are 0.85 per cent, for east-bound 
track and 0.41 per cent, for west-bound, while the ruling and continuous 
grade is 1.5 per cent, for 6 miles to the Anaconda smelter hill, and 2.5 
per cent, for 5 miles to the Butte mines. 

Passenger service consists of eight 3-car trains, of from 235 to 275 
tons' weight, per day, between the cities. 

Freight service consists of twenty 960- to 1050-ton ore and supply 
trains, between Butte and Anaconda, twenty 2800- to 3500-ton trains 
down the grades from the mines, and many switching movements. 

Cost of service per train-mile, from I. C. C. reports, is $2.63, which is 
higher than ordinary roads in this district, because of the high cost of 
labor, and the very wasteful use of coal by locomotives on the up- and 
down-grade, per ton-mile hauled. 

Electrification would give a market for water power, now delivered 
by the Anaconda Copper Company to Butte and Anaconda for 
mining purposes, at 100,000 volts and 60 cycles. It would decrease 
the cost of power per ton-mile, increase the train load, and thus increase 
the capacity of each mile of track on the grades. About $1,000,000 
would be required for electrical equipment. 

OTHER PROPOSED AMERICAN ELECTRIFICATIONS. 

Chicago, Milwaukee and Puget Sound Railroad has had plans drawn 
for the utilization of water power to haul its trains over the Bitter Root 
Mountains, for about 100 miles of track between St. Regis, Montana, 
and St. Joe, Idaho. It is understood that a series of hydraulic dams would 
be required on the St. Joe River and on the Missoula River. 

Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railroad has proposed to apply 
electric traction for its line between Buffalo and Cleveland. See '^ Steam 
vs. Electric Railway Operation for Trunk Line Traffic," Mayer, to 
A. S. C. E., November 21, 1906; St. Ry. Journ., December 1, 1906. 

Northern Pacific Railroad has considered the use of electric power on 
the Bozeman ^^hill" and also on the Helena ^^hill," over the Rocky Moun- 
tains. Tests were made in 1908 on locomotive requirements, and data 
and estimates prepared on electrification. Traffic is not too light for 
commercial practicability, and the load factor will be sufficiently high if 
the electrification covers 100 miles of route. 

Oregon Short Line has considered plans for electrification from Salt 
Lake City over the mountain grades to Pocatella, 171 miles. 

Norfolk & Western Railway has planned to increase its economy and 
capacity by the electrification of the mountain grades near Bluefield, W. Va. 

Many American railroads are now studying plans for electrification. 



WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 561 
EUROPEAN ELECTRIC RAILROADS. 
ENGLAND. 

In Great Britain there are about 237 miles of steam railroad track 
operated solely by electricity and in addition 200 miles operated partly 
by electricity, 87 electric locomotives and 821 motor cars, in addition 
to the underground tubes, and the two old steam ^'Circle" lines, now 
worked electrically. There are five provincial railroads which employ 
electric traction for train service: Mersey, North-Eastern, Lancashire 
& Yorkshire, Midland, and London, Brighton & South Coast. The 
last two are single-phase roads. Maps: St. Ry. Journ., October 4, 1902. 

Mersey Tunnel Railway, between Liverpool and Birkenhead, for- 
merly a steam road, was electrified in 1903. It now has 5 miles of route 
and 10 miles of track. The road extends thru a tunnel under the Mersey 
River. The reason for electrification was to overcome the difficulties 
due to grades and the ventilation in the tunnel, and to regain traffic 
which had been taken in competition. 

The service with steam operation consisted normally of 7 coaches 
per train, while with electric service there is a 3-minute headway on 
the main line and 6 minutes on the branches. Steam trains formerly 
weighed 154 tons, where electric trains now weigh 137 tons. Formerly 
there were 12 steam trains per hour, now there are 20 electric trains per 
hour. Steam locomotives formerly used were 18, which handled 96 
coaches, with a total of 4280 seats. Electric motor cars are now 24, 
which haul 33 coaches, with a total of about 3156 seats. The train-miles 
per hour are now 50 per cent, greater than in the heaviest steam service. 
Motor cars are 60 feet long, have four 100-h. p. motors. 

Power station has three 1250-kilowatt, d.-c. units and a battery. 

Mersey Railway was the first road to show clearly, from operation, 
that there was no theory about the increased net earnings with electric 
traction as compared with steam, as the following table shows : 

Passenger traffic increased 120 per cent.; receipts 85 per cent. 

Electric working reduced from .20 to .17 cent per ton-mile. 

Coal cost reduced from $4 to $2.10 per ton. 

Average speed with stops increased from 15.6 to 19.9 m. p. h. 

Maintenance of way reduced from 0.42 to 0.18 cent per ton-mile. 

Life of rails increased 47 per cent, per ton average rolling load. 

Ton-miles per annum increased from 43,000,000 to 67,000,000. 

Total cost of working and maintaining the locomotive and engineer- 
ing department reduced from 0.46 to 0.30 cent per ton-mile. 

Total cost of operation including general charges but excluding interest 
on additional capital for electrification reduced from .68 cent to .48 cent 
per ton-mile. 
36 



562 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

Total cost of operation including general charges, and including 
interest on additional capital for electrification have been reduced from 
.68 cent to .58 cent per ton-mile. 

J. Shaw: British Institution of Civil Engineers, jSTov,, 1909. Kirker : Electric Jour- 
nal, May, 1906; Electrical Age, Jan., 1910; S. R. J., Apr., 4 1903. 

North -Eastern Railway, formerly a steam road, electrified in 1904, 
comprises two miles of four track, and 35 miles of double track, or 82 
miles of single track near Newcastle upon Tyne. Stations are 1| m.iles 
apart. The 600-volt, direct-current, third-rail system is used. There are 
62 motor cars of 250 h. p., and 44 trail coaches, and 6 freight locomotives. 

" A much greater amount of work is now done at the terminal stations as there are 
no engines to attach or detach; the signal operations are reduced about one-half 
accelerations realized decreased running between stations from 15 per cent, to 19 per 
cent. It would have been impossible to carry by the steam service the number of 
passengers that now are electrically conveyed." Dr. C. A. Harrison to British 
Institution of Civil Engineers, November, 1909. S. R. T., June 20, 1903. 

Lancashire & Yorkshire Railway, electrified in 1904, between Liv- 
erpool and Southport, England, has a route length of 40 miles, but 82 
single-track miles. In 1910, a belt line between the two cities via 
Ormskirk was added. 

Service is provided with 80 motor cars and 52 coaches, weighing 51 
an-d 23 tons respectively. Four-car 1200-h.p. trains are usual. The 
direct-current, 600 volt, third-rail system is used. 

E. R. J., Jan. 30, April 2, 1904; Aug. 4, 1906; Aspinwall, Inst, of M. E., 1909. 

Midland Railway in 1908 electrified its double-track steam line be- 
tween Heysham, Morecambe, and Lancaster, 23 miles of track. The 
6600-volt, 25-cycle, single-phase system is used. There are now three 
43-ton, 60-foot, 72-passenger motor cars and six 21-ton coaches. Power 
is produced by gas engines having a rated capacity of 450 kilowatts. 
The Electrician, June 12, 19, 26, 1908; July 4, 1908. 

LONDON, BRIGHTON & SOUTH COAST. 

London, Brighton & South Coast Railway, the oldest steam road in 
England, built in 1841, began the use of electric traction in 1909 on its 
South London 9-mile division, and in 1911 on its Crystal Palace 14-mile 
division, there being altogether 62 miles of single track in operation. 

Electrification was decided upon as advantageous not only for the 
conditions on the suburban division, but also for the 50-mile route from 
London to Brighton, between which points there are about 40 trains 
each way per day. The directors have decided to electrify the entire 480 
miles of track prior to 1916. The 25-cycle, 6700-volt, single-phase, 
system was chosen for the work. 



WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 563 

Motor-car trains are operated. Service is furnished by 46 motor 
cars and 68 coaches, of which 16 motor cars have four 115-h. p. and 30 
have four 175-h. p. motors. Motor cars weigh 55 tons and 60 tons re- 
spectively, and haul two 35-ton coaches. Seats per car are about 67. 
Distance between stops is about 4300 feet, stops are 20 seconds, and 
schedule speed 22 m. p. h. Motors are A. E. G., single-phase, compensated 
repulsion type. Voltage is 750; air gap is 3 mm.; gear ratio is 4.24, and 
acceleration rate is 1.0 m. p. h. p. s. Commutators run 50,000 miles be- 
tween turnings. Motor efficiency is over 80 per cent., power factor 
of the system is 80 per cent., and energy consumption at the power" 
station is 65 to 75 watt hours per ton-mile with the above stops, and 
34.4 on non-stop, 37-m. p. h. schedule trips. Each motor car averages 
58,000 miles per annum. 

Contact line is the double catenary, V type. Line insulators were 
tested mechanically to 14 tons, and electrically to 65,000 volts. Many 
low bridges and tortuous routes exist near terminals. Collectors are 
aluminum bows, contactors have a groove for grease; pressure is 10 
pounds; life is 4500 miles; and cost of renewals is 10 cents per 1000 miles. 

The results of operation for the first six months of 1910 show that 
the passenger traffic increased from 2,000,000 to 3,750,000, and the daily 
train mileage from 687 to 1465. Part of the increase was enticed away 
from the tramways, part was new business induced by a reduction of 
fares, which reduction became possible by reason of economies effected 
by electrical operation, so that the entire gain can be stated to be due 
to the adoption of electricity. 

References. 

E. R. J., Dec. 30, 1905; March 6, 1909; April 1, 1911, p. 582. 
Dawson's ''Electric Traction on Railways," 1909. 

Dawson: London Electrician, Sept. 9, 1910; Extension to Crystal Palace, B. I. C. E., 
March, 1911. 

SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 

In Sweden the State Railway has been experimenting since 1905, 
near Stockholm, with single-phase, 25-cycle electric locomotives, also 
18,000 to 25,000-volt contact lines. The locomotives have been described. 
The work has now passed the experimental stage. 

In 1911 the State began the electrification of the steam railroad 
between Kiruna and Riksgransen, 93 miles apart. Thirteen 2000-h.p. 
freight, and two 1000-h. p. passenger locomotives were ordered from 
Siemens. A change was made to the 15-cycle, single-phase, 15,000-volt 
system. The service calls for the haulage of ore, near the Norwegian 
frontier, in 2,200-ton trains with 2000-h. p. locomotives; and the haulage 



564 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

of passenger and express trains with 1000-h. p., 62-ni. p. h. loconaotives. 
The grade is a steady encline of one per cent. A 36,000-kv-a., single- 
phase water power station has been built at Porjus Falls, from which 
power is transmitted at 80,000 volts. The estimated cost of the com- 
plete undertaking was $4,000,000. 

In Norway electrification of railways is proceeding on a smaller 
scale. Motor-car and locomotive-hauled trains are being operated 
between Thamshavn and Lokken, an 18-mile road; also on the Rjukan 
Railway (Notodden-Tinoset and Vestfjorddals Railway), 29 miles. 

References on Electric Railways in Sweden and Norway. 

Swedish State: S. R. J., Apr. 15, 1905, March 31, 1906; E. W., Nov. 11, 1905. Single- 
phase Locomotive Installations, and Cost of Electrification, E. R, J., Oct. 15, 
1910, p. 857; May 6, 1911, p. 788. 

Thamshavn-Lokken : Ry. Age., Sept. 2, 1910, 

FRANCE. 

The railways of France, in geographical order are: The North- 
ern, Eastern, Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean, Southern, Paris-Orleans, and 
the Western. Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean extends from Paris to Mar- 
seilles;. Paris-Orleans extends from Paris thru Orleans and on to the 
south to Tolouse where it joins the Southern; Western extends from 
Paris to points on the English channel, and Southern extends across 
Southern France, parallel with the Pyrennes Mountains, from the Atlantic 
to the Mediterranean. Western and Southern are under government 
control. 

Paris -Lyons -Mediterranean, in 1900, electrified 40 miles of track 
near its Paris terminal, and uses the direct-current 600-volt third-rail 
system. Plans for electrification between Gap and Barcelonette have 
been adopted. Reference on its Fayet-Chamonix road to Mt. Blanc: 
St. Ry. Journ., Feb. 7, 1903. 

Paris-Orleans Railroad, in 1900, electrified 46 miles of track, using 
the direct-current, 600-volt, third-rail system on the Paris-Juvisy, 
14-mile section. About 200 thru trains are hauled daily, by 11 electric 
locomotives, and about 100 suburban trains are hauled by motor cars. 
The original power plant at Ivry had three 1000-kilowatt, three-phase, 
25-cycle, 5500-volt generating units which fed three substations. 

Western of France Railroad has used electric traction since 1901, 
on the Paris- Versailles, 11 -mile suburban division. Plans have been 
adopted for two important 20-mile extensions, to Argenteuix and to St. 
Germain, the cost of which is estimated at $13,400,000. Other electri- 
fication plans, if carried out, will involve an expenditure of $60,000,000. 

Midi (or Southern) Railroad of France began to equip its steam line 



WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 565 

for electric traction in 1909. The first work was on the 65-mile section 
l3ang between Pan and Montrejean. One of the heavy grades is 3.5 per 
cent, for 7 miles. It is intended later to equip the 200 miles between 
Tolouse and Bayonne. The single-phase, 17-cycle system is used. 

Six 89-ton, 1200-h. p. freight locomotives have been purchased from 
Westinghouse, and one 94-ton, 1600-h. p., locomotive from the All- 
gemeine Elektricitats Gesellschaft. See description, page 385. 

Motor cars haul 115-ton passenger trains on the branch lines at 38 
m. p. h. Thirty 50-seat, 62-ton motor cars are used, each equipped with 
four 285-volt, 125-h. p. single-phase motors. 

Four w^ater-power plants, at Egat, Soulom, Porta, and Ossau, with 
a total rating of 38,000 kilowatts, will be used. Energy will be trans- 
mitted at 60,000 volts to five substations where it will be reduced by 
step-down transformers to 12,000 volts for the contact line. 

References. 

Elec. Ry. Journ., Oct. 15, 1910; June 3, 1911, p. 962. 

SPAIN. 

Santa Fe-Gergal Railway of Spain started the electrification of its 
main line from Linaries to Almeria, in southwestern Spain, in 1907. 
The mileage electrified to 1909 is 15. The equipment consists of five 
320-h. p., 30-ton locomotives designed by Brown, Boveri & Company. 

The service consists of the haulage of light passenger trains with a 
single locomotive, and freight trains which weigh from 150 to 300 tons 
with two locomotives. 

The system used is the three-phase, 15-cycle, 5,500-volt, double- 
trolley, without separate transmission lines and substations. 

HOLLAND. 

Rotterdam-Hague -Scheveningen Railway of Holland, opened in 
October, 1908, is a good example of a 10,000-volt, 25-cycle, single-phase 
road. Route length is 22 miles; mileage is 48. 

Generator capacity installed is 5700 kv-a. Four 600-kv-a. and four 
1200-kv-a. step-down transformers are used, with three-phase, two-phase 
line connections. Trolley construction comprises a catenary, and a 
4/0 contact wire. 

Rolling stock consists of twenty 61-foot, 56-ton, 3-axle motor cars, 
and nine 34-toD trailer cars. Each motor car has two single-phase com- 
pensated, series, 180-h. p. Siemens-Schuckert motors, geared for 60 
m. p. h. The controller delivers 133 to 338 volts to the motor. 

Train service in winter consists of 52 trains per 16-hour day, which 



566 



ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 



average 235 miles per motor car; in summer, of 160 trains, which 
average 357 miles per motor car. Three-car trains are in common use. 

References. 

Ry. Age, July 8, 1910; St. Ry. Journ., Oct. 2, 1909. 

GERMANY. 

About 94 per cent, of all railroads in Germany are state railroads 
The single-phase, 15-cycle, 10,000-volt system was adopted in 1908 by 
the Prussian State Government. The development and extent of elec- 
trification in Germany are shown below: 

ELECTRIC RAILROADS IN GERMANY. 





Single-phase. 


Mile- 


Motor- 


Locomo- 
tives. 


Year 


Name of railroad. 


Cycles. 


Volts. 


age. 


cars. 


built. 


Prussian State : 

Spindlersfeld 


25 
25 
25 

25 
15 


6,600 
6,600 
6,600 
1,500 
10,000 


3 

1 
17 

2 

23 

250 

12 

4 

15 
30 
34 

37 

30 
112 


4 



110 

2 



3 

1 


• 1903 


Oranienburg 

Blankanese-Ohlsdorf . . . 

Altoona Harbor 

Magdeburg - Leipzig- 
Berlin City, Circle 


1906 
1907 
1910 
1910 
Project. 
1903 
1905 

1905 
1911 


Berlin-Grosslichterf elde . 
Neiderschoenweide-Koep- 

enick. 
Bavarian State: 

Murnau-Oberammergau 

Salzburg-Berchtesgaden 

Karlsruhe-Herrenalb 

Baden State: 

Wiesental Ry. or Basei- 
Schopfheim-Zell. 
Rhine Shore Ry. : 

Cologne-Bonn 

Cologne-Treves . . .• . 


D. c. 

15 

15 
15 
25 

15 
D. c. 


550 
640 

5,500 

10,000 

8,000 

10,000 
990 


24 


4 




1 

2 


7 
15 

10 


4 
12 




1909 
1909 

1908 
Project. 




i 









References on Electric Railroads in Germany. 

Berlin-Zossen high-speed tests of 1901; S. R. J., Sept. 9, Oct. 28, 1905. 

Berlin Elevated & Underground: Engr. Mag., Vol. 27, p. 731, 1904; St. Ry. Rev., 

April and Oct., 1902; Ry. Age, Sept. 23, 1910. 
Eifel Bahn Ry.: Cologne to Treves, 112 miles, S. R. J., Oct. 12, 1907. 
Electrification of Geneva Railroads: Electrical Review, March 6, 1909, p. 434. 
Weisental Ry.: E. R. J., Dec. 11, 1907, p. 1177. 
Peters: Development of German Railways, Ry. Age, Dec. 16, 1910. 

See references under Systems; and under Technical Descriptions of Locomotives. 



WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS IN AUSTRIA. 



567 



Name of railway. 



Electric system. 



Motor 

cars. 



Loco- 
motives, 



Route 
miles. 



Mile- 



Year 
open. 



Tabor-Bechyn 

Innsbruck-Fulpmes 

Bludenz-Schruns 

Vienna-Baden 

Haute Vienne 

Trient-Male 

Neumarkt-Waizenkircken. . 
Waitzen-Budapest-GodoUa 

St. Polten-Mariazell 

Mittenwald: Munich- 
Innsbruck. 
Vienna-Pressburg 



D, c, 3-wire, 1500-volt 

1-phase 

D. c, 2-wire, 500-volt 

1-phase, 15-cycle, 10,000-volt 
1-phase, 25-cycle, 10,000-volt 

D. c, 800 volts 

D. c, 500 volts 

1-phase, 15-cycle, 10,000-volt. 
1-phase, 25-cycle, 6000-volt. . 
1-phase, 15-cycle, 10,000-volt. 

1-phase, 15-cycle, 10,000-volt. 



11 



15 


16 


12 




8 




18 


41 


37 


50 


10 




31 


36 


56 


68 


63 


69 


42 





1903 
1904 
1905 
1907 
1910 
1909 
1908 
1910 
1910 
1910 

1911 



SWITZERLAND. 

Swiss Federal Railways on December 31, 1909, owned 1825 miles of 
railway, leaving 973 miles outstanding in the hands of private companies. 

Experimental work, between 1904 and 1906, on the short Seebach- 
Wettingen branch, with Oerlikon and Siemens locomotive hauled trains, 
proved that 15 cycles, 15,000 volts, catenary construction, single-phase 
commutators, and side-rod locomotives were practical for heavy railways. 

Simplon Tunnel road, Burgdorf-Thun interurban, and 21 meter- 
gage roads, operated by the Confederation, use electric traction. Plans 
have been developed to use electric traction on all roads. See report of 
Commission on Electrification, St. Ry. Journ., Nov. 10, 1906, p. 950. See 
technical description of Simplon tunnel locomotives. 

Burgdorf-Thun Railway was the first meter-gage, electric inter- 
urban road in Switzerland operated under steam railroad conditions. 
The road is 25.4 miles long. It was placed in service in July, 1899. 

Power comes from a 4500-kilowatt water power plant at Spiez, as 
three-phase current, at 15,500 volts. Fourteen transformer stations, 
with a maximum capacity of 450 kilowatts each, which corresponds to the 
load of a double train, are used to reduce the pressure from 15,000 
to 750 volts alternating for the two-wire, three-phase contact line. 
Trolley line consists of two hard-drawn, 8-mm. wires, 15.9 to 17.0 feet 
above the rails. 

Rolling stock consists of six 32-ton motor cars with four 55-h. p. 
motors, and 10 passenger coaches. Speed is 22 m. p. h. 

Two 100-ton, 300-h. p. electric locomotives used for the freight traffic 
run at 11 and at 22 m. p. h. and each has a capacity for hauling 
100 tons at 11 m. p. h. on a 2-5 per cent, grade, or 50 tons at 22 
m. p. h. on the same grade. The locomotive rotor runs at 300 r. p. m., 



5G8 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS 

and is geared to 2 sets of gears connected to a countershaft, which 
drives the 2 axles of the locomotive by means of a side-rod. 

References. 

Motor equipment, drawings: S. R. J., Dec. 30, 1899; June 7, 1902. 

Bernes Alps Railroad, connecting Berne, Spiez, Frutigen, in 
Switzerland, and the Simplon Tunnel in Italy, completed a standard 
gage over and thru the Alps, in 1911. Its Lotschberg double-track 
tunnel, which adjoins the Simplon tunnel, is 8 1/2 miles long, of large 
cross-section, 19.8 by 26.4 feet, for double track. The tunnel will cost 
$7,500,000 and the entire railroad, which is 52 miles long, $15,000,000. 

Oerlikon, A. E. G., and Siemens locomotives were described. 

Motor cars are 65-foot, 62-ton, and seat 64 passengers. Each hauls 
trailers in 177 trains up long 2.7 per cent, grades at 28 m.p.h. 

The system used is the 15-cycle, 15,000-volt, single-phase. 

References. 

Electrical Review, March 6, 1909; E. R. J., June 18, 1910, Oct. 29, 1910. 



ITALY. 

Italian State Railways have been electrified as follows: 

Milan-Varese-Porto Ceresio Railroad in 1901, for local and sub- 
urban service. There are 48 miles of first-class road and 81 miles of 
track. Stops average 2.9 miles apart. It is operated by the Mediter- 
ranean Railway Company. 

The direct-current, 660-volt, third-rail system is used. Trains 
contain ihree 45-ton motor cars, each with four 160-h. p. motors, and 
three 35-ton coaches. Electric locomotives are used for freight. Grades 
are heavy. Tariffs were reduced 50 per cent, after electric power was 
adopted,, yet the earnings increased 25 per cent. Electrification cost 
was only $12,000 per mile. 

Valtellina Railway, or Rete Adriatica, in 1902. This is an elec- 
trified steam road, with light traffic, between Lecco on the south and 
Chiavenna, 41 miles north, with a branch to Sondrio, 25 miles west, in 
all 66 miles of road and 70 miles of track. The road was extended 
south from Lecco to Milan, a distance of 25 miles, in 1911. 

The three-phase, 15-cycle, 3000-volt system is used. 

Locomotives and service are described in Chapter IX. 

Giovi Railway, between Genoa, Pontedecimo, and Bussala, which 
electrified 13 miles of double track in 1909. This is a three-phase 
mountain-grade freight road using 30 Westinghouse locomotives. 



WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 569 

Savona-San Giuseppe, a 13-inile, three-phase, 15-cycle, 3000-volt 
freight road in northern Italy, in 1909. 

Domodossola-Iselle, an extension south from the Simplon Tunnel, 
about 10 miles of track, in 1910. 

Bardonnechia-Modana, including the Mont Cenis tunnel railway, 
between Modane and Turin, completed for the Turin Exposition in 1911. 
Three-phase, 7000-volt, 2000-h. p., Brown-Boveri locomotives are used. 

Neapel -Salerno and Torre Annum ziata-Castellamare roads. 

Turin -Pinerollo -Torre -Pelice Railway, a branch line southwest from 
Turin, on which Mr. Yerola, the chief engineer of the electrical depart- 
ment, states the single-phase system is necessary because variable 
speeds, up to 50 m. p. h., are required for light passenger trains. 

Gallarate-Arona, and Gallarate-Laveno, third-rail lines. 

References on Italian State Railways. 

Milan- Varese-Porto Ceresio: S. R. J., Aug. 3, 1901; Dec. 6, 1902; May 13, 1905. 

Hammer: General notes, A. I. E. E., Feb., 1901; S. R. J., May 2, 1903, p. 663. 

Waterman: Descriptive, A. I. E. E., June, 1905. 

Valtellina Railway: S. R. J., March 16, 1901; May 30, 1903. 

Stillwell: A. I. E. E., Jan., 1907; S. R. J., April 6, 1907, p. 575. . 

Valatin: S. R. J., Descriptive, Aug. 5, 1905; Jan. 4, 1908. 

Cserhati: Operation results, S. R. J., Aug. 26, 1905. 

Wilson & Lydall: Power Curves, in "Electrical Traction," Vol. II, p. 113. 

Electrification of 193 miles: S. R. J., May 11, 1907. 

CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY. 

The technical descriptions, statistical tables, and summary of work 
done in Electric Traction for Railway Trains are so rich in suggestive 
details that they will repay a careful study of the development and the 
present status. What the next decade will show may be surmised. 

European development is now and always will be limited to short- 
haul work, but the American development for long-distance, trunk-line 
work is most attractive. Where it has been on a large scale, for 
freight, switching and passenger service, the work done has justified the 
undertaking; as the size of the project increases, the economic gain 
increases, and in transportation this is of vital importance. Capital has 
been spent for electric traction on the faith that it was wisely spent, 
to attract traffic and to operate trains economically. 



INDEX. 



Acceleration, kinematics of, 417 

energy required for, 418 

rates used, 229, 274, 416, 469 
Adhesive coefficients, 269, 406 
Advantages of Electric Traction, Chapter III, 86 
Advantages, in business depression, 113 

of direct-current motors, 161 

of direct-current systems, 148 

of electric roads in competition, 114 

of series vs. repulsion motors, 169 

of series vs. shunt motors, 161, 425, 508 

of single-phase motors, 177 

of single-phase systems, 149 

of three-phase motors, 165 

of three-phase system, 149 
Air gap of motors, 167, 198 
Air resistance, tables, 407, 409 
Akron, Bedford and Cleveland R. R., 13, 23 
Albany Southern R. R., 16, 23, 28, 39 
Alexanderson, motor, 175 
Allgemeine Elektricitats-Gesellschaf t : 

electric mtoors, 147 H 

single-phase locomotives, 354, 355, 383, 387 

single-phase roads, 141, 143, 144 
Allis-Chakners Company, 9, 162, 163 
A. I. E. E. rating for motors, 182 
Amperes per contact line, table, 447 
Analysis of operation of roads, 101, 506 
Anchor bridges on overhead hnes, 453 
Annapolis Short Line R. R. 

See Baltimore & Annapolis 
Armature bearings, 202 

design for motors, 199 

dimensions of, 194 

height above rail, 287 

speed of, 201 

windings of, 199 
Armstrong, A. H., 217, 528 
Arnold, B.J., 137, 379, 541 
Aspinwall,J. A. F., 22, 65, 89, 114, 527 

See Lancashire & Yorkshire Ry. 
Aspinwall, L. M., 214 
Aurora, Elgin & Chicago R. R., 17 
Austria, electric railways of, 567 
Automatic devices, for safety, 92 
Axle, hollow, 208, 252, 297, 303, 365, 372 

standardization for gears, 202 

tons per, 56, 289 

Baden State Ry. locomotive, 386 

See German Railroads, 519, .521, 566 
Balanced locomotives, 64 



Baltimore & Annapolis Short Line: 

cost of electrification, 517 

electrification, 549 

motor-car trains, 234 

system of electrification, 138 
Baltimore & Ohio R. R.: 

electrification of, 517, 549 

locomotives, electric, 44, 302, 303 

locomotive motors, 207, 303 

locomotives, steam, 77 

motors, 196, 207, 201, 303 

operating expenses, 550 

third rail, 26, 550 
Batteries, storage, 2, 146 
Bavarian State Ry. locomotives, 386 

motor-car trains, 262 

See German Railroads, 519, 521, 566 
Bearings of electric motors, 202 
Beggs,John I., 139 
Bentley-KJnight, electric railway, 4 
Berlin-Zossen, contact line, 450 

high-speed tests, 135, 230 
Bernese-Alps R. R., electrification, 568 

locomotives, electric, 392 

Lotschberg Tunnel, 31, 109 

system of electrification, 143 
Blankanese-Ohlsdorf Ry., 176, 566 

motor-car trains, 261 
Boilers, locomotive, 58, 67, 93 

steam power plants, 474 
Boston & Albany R. R. : 

electrification at Boston, 98, 512, 556 

terminals at Boston, 98, 114 
Boston & Eastern R. R. : 

electrification at Boston, 512 
Boston & Maine R. R.: 

contact line, 454 

cost of electrification, 522 

electrification, 535 

Hoosac Tunnel, 535 

interurban roads, 535 

locomotives, electric, 376 
Boston terminal electrification, 78, 114, 512 

New York, New Haven & Hartford, 514 

Boston & Albany, 98, 512, 556 
Bows for current collection, 446 
Braking, rate of deceleration, 417 

regenerative control, 426 
Branch line electrification, 99 
Bridges for contact lines, 458 
Brill, motor-car truck, 255 
BrinckerhoS, H. M., 104 



571 



572 



INDEX. 



Brooklyn Rapid Transit, 104, 241 

equipment and energy of motor-cars, 428 
Brown, Boveri & Co. 

Deri motor, 176, 220 

locomotives, Simplon Tunnel, 346 

single-phase roads, 142, 143 

three-phase roads, 134 
Brushes and brush holders, 200 
Buffalo and Lockport Ry., locomotive, 163, 

307, 308 
Burch, Edward P., 103, 137, 215 
Burgdorf-Thun Ry. electrification, 521, 537 

maintenance of ways and track, 104 
Burt, Horace G., 558 

Bush Terminal R. R., locomotives, 307, 308 
Butte, Anaconda and Pacific Ry., 559 
By-products of electrification, 112 

Canadian Pacific Ry., 559 
Capacity, of electric locomotives, 269 

of electric motors, 182 

of elevated roads, 26 

of motor-car trains, 242 

of power plants, 467 

of railways, 87 

of steam locomotives, 59 

of terminals, 88 
Cascade control of motors, 217 
Cascade Tunnel, see Great Northern Railway 
Catenary construction, 449, 455 
Center of gravity, 

of steam and electric locomotives, 58, 287 

of motors, 104 
Central California Traction Co., 1200-volt road, 

128 
Centra] London Railway, gearless locomotive, 44 

motor-car trains, 44, 258, 260 
Characteristic curves of motors, 209 
Characteristics of Electric Locomotives, Chapter 

VII, page 236 
Characteristics of Modern Steam Locomotives, 

Chapter II, page 50 
Characteristics of motor-car trains, 228 
Character of tractive effort, 406 
Chicago, Burlington & Qiincy R.R., 553 
Chicago Elevated Railways Co., 25, 28 
Chicago, Lake Shore & South Bend R.R., 253 
Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound R. R., 550 
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Ry. balanced 

locomotives, 64 
Chicago terminal electrification, 121, 55S 
City & South London Ry. locomotives, 42, 205 
Clark, D. K., on compound locomotives, 75 
Clark, W.J., on electric locomotives, 44 
Classification, of electric systems, 127 

of electric railway development, 531 

of railway motors, 160 

of steam locomotives, 51 
Coal, and ash handling devices, 473 

burned per I. H. P. hr. in locomotive tests, 83 

burned per ton mile and train mile, 83 

consumption and evaporation rsltio, table, 63 

consumption of steam locomotives, 82, 283 

cost of, 57, 107 



Coal, supply, 473 

waste of locomotives, Goss, table, 70 
Coefficient of adhesion between drivers and rail, 

269, 406 
Cole, F. J., on indicator cards, 74 
Collection of data for electrification, 504 
Cologne- Bonn Ry. motor-car train, 258 
Commonwealth Edison power plant, 489 
Commutators, 178, 200 
Comparison of expenses of steam and electrical 

operation, 102 
Comparison of motors, 181 

one-hour and continuous rating, 182 
Comparison of Oerlikon with other locomotives, 

table, 395 
Comparison of train weight, electric and steam, 

230, 243 
Competition of electric with steam roads, 20, 

114, 504 
Complication with electric traction, 118 

with three-phase contact lines, 447-8-9 
Compound steam locomotives, 59, 60, 75 
Compound locomotive tests. Southern Pacific, 78 
Compulsory electrifications, 522, 541 
Conclusions and summary, on electric systems, 
152 

on advantages of electric traction, 123 

on electrification, 569 
Condensers, surface, 475 
Conduit railways, 9, 30 
Conservation of natural resources, 115 
Conservatism in railway men, 117 
Contact lines, 445 

amperes per, 447 

capacity of, 445 

collection of current, 445 

mechanical strength of, 445 

shoes, 446 

third-rail, 28, 455, 464 

three-phase railway, 448 
Continuous capacity of motors, 183 
Control circuits, 92 
Control of electric locomotives, 249 
Control of direct-current motors, 214, 218 

of single-phase motors, 218 

of three-phase motors, 216 
Control of trains, 92, 245 
Controller losses, 148 
Converters, rotary, 132 
Cooper, William, 215, 222, 247, 263 
Copeley, A. W., 439 

Corrosion of steel by locomotive gas3s, 105 
Cost of cateiary contact lines, 459 

of coal, 57, 107 

of coal per car-mile, ton-mile, etc., 83 

of complete equipments, 150, 507 

of conduit railways, 30 

of contact line construction, 458 

of direct-current system, 150 

of electric and steam locomotives, 300 

of electrification of roads, 507, 511, 522 

of elevated roads, subways, and tunnels, 30 

of equipment of power plants, 476, 483 

of gas power plants, 489 



INDEX. 



573 



Cost of high-teasion transmission lines, 459 
of hydro-electric power, table, 483 
of lines and substations, 508 
of li\'ing decreased by electric traction, 115 
of locomotives, electric, 300 
of maintenance of contact lines, 460 
of maintenance and electric systems, 151 
of maintenance of electric cars, 240 
of maintenance of equipment, 105 
of maintenance of ways and structures, 103 
of motor cars and equipment, table, 242 
of motor equipments, 508, 511 
of operation of steam and electric locomo- 
tives, on New York Central, 316 
of operatiDU of steam locomotives, 83 
of operation of steam power plants, 477 
of poles, 458 
of passen!?er cars, 242 
of power at electric railroad plants, 479- 
of power equipment of steam roads, 510 
of power plants, 507 

of power, steam per kw. hour, 83, 477, 478 
of power, water per kw. hour, 483 
of singb-phase equipment, 150 
of steam cars, 242 

of steam-electric power per kw. hour, 478 
of steam locomotive operation, 82, 83 
of steam locomotives, 300 
of steam power plant equipment, 476 
of steam railroads, table, 510 
of subways, 30 

of third-rail lines per mile, 460 
of three-phase high-tension transmission 

lines, 459 
of trtee-phase system, 150 
of transmission line bridges, 458 
of towers, 458 
Cradle suspension of motors, 205 
Crank and side rod construction, 209, 298 
Crank and side rod electric locomotives; table, 299 
Crocker, George G., Boston Transit Commission, 98 
Crude presentation of situations, 117 
Curve rail resistance, 415 

Daft, Leo, 4, 40, 42 

Dalziel,J ., on electric systems, 152 

Danger from electricity, 119 

from steam locomotives, 93 
Darlington, Frederick, 124, 155, 300, 517 
Davenport, Thomas, 2 
Davidson, 2 

Dawson, P, 178, 210, 462 
Deceleration, rates, 417 

Deductions from data for electrification, 506 
Definition, of railroad and railway, 7 

of motor-car train, 225 
De'eware & Hudson R. R., grades, 503 

interurVjan lines, 21 
Delaware, Lackawanna & Western R. R., 503, 557 
Delivery of freight and passengers, 99 
De Muralt, L. C, on three-phase motors, 164 
Denver and Interurban R. R., 553 
Dependence on single power station, 119 
Deri motors, 176, 220 



Design of contact Lines, 445 

of direct-current generators, 132 

of electric locomotives, 285 

of electric motors, 91 

of rotary converters, 132 

of steam locomotives, 55, 58 
Detroit River Tunnel locomotives, 318 
Development of direct-current systems, 128 

of electric railroads, 497 

of high voltages for electric railways, 437 

of motor design, 174 

of practical street railways, 9 

of single-phase systems, 136 

of three-phase systems, 134 
Dimensions of electric locomotives, 287 

of armatures, 201 

of motors, 194 

of steam locomotives, 56 
Direct-current electric locomotive list, 302 
Direct-current motors, 161 
Direct-current railways using 750 to 2000 volts, 

European, 129 
Direct-current railways using 1200 tO 1500 volts, 
American, 130 

systems, 127, 133 

1200 volts, 129, 130, 161 
Disadvantages of 15, and 25 cycles, 213 

of crank construction, 298 

of direct-current series motors, 161 

of direct-current shunt motors, 425 

of direct-current systems, 149 

of electric traction, 117 

of nose suspension of motors, 206 

of side rod locomotives, 299 

of single-phase commutator motors, 177 

of single-phase system, 150 

of steam locomotives, 62, 65, 500 

of third rail for railroads, 457 

of three-phase motors and systems, 166, 169 

of three-phase systems, 149 

of two trolleys, 447 
Discarded ideas in electric traction, 11 
Discard of steam locomotives, 120 
Drawbar pull of direct-current motors, 210 

of electric locomotives, 269, 273, 406 

of 15 and 25-cycle locomotive motors, 214 

of motor-car trains, table, 230 

of single-phase motors, 179, 210, 270 

of steam locomotives, 61, 73, 273, 406 

of three-phase motors, 168, 210, 270, 273 

of trains, 469 
Drawings of electric locomotives, references, 

336, 353, 398 
Drivers, diameter of, table, 297 
Dudley, P. H., 65, 408 

Early electric street railways, 7 
Earnings and mileage of railways, 47 

of electric railways, 95 

of freight roads, 39, 96 
learning power and net earnings, 109, 284, 497 
f'Jaton, G. M., 301 

Economy in operation of power plants, 467 
Economic results from private right-of-way, 24 



574 



INDEX. 



Economical prime movers, 467, 474 
Economy of coal, 70, 82 
Edison, T. A., locomotives, 3, 26, 40 
Efficiency of control schemes, 218 

of motors, 165, 168, 178 
Eichberg single-phase motors, 176 
Electrical data, on motors, 187 
Electrical engineers for railroads, 93, 526, 527 
Electric locomotives. See locomotives. 
Electric meters, 93 
Electric motive power, 87 

Electric railway development, classification, 531 
Electric Railway Motors, Chapter V, 158 
Electric Systems, Chapter IV, 126 
Electric system, affect on load factor, 472 
Electric traction, by electric railways, 45 

by steam railroads, 45, 46 
Electrification for short distances, 522 
Electrification of Railroads, Chapter XV, 530 
Electrification of established steam roads, 504 
Elevated railways, 25, 26 
Enclosure of motors, 197 
Energy and power units, 401 

for frequent stops, 418 

for motor-car trains, 428 

losses in transmission, 433 

of rotation, 402 

regeneration of, 424 

required for trains, 506 

watt-hours per ton-mile, 421, 423 
Enginemen, wages of, 105 

re. safety, 93 
Equalization of power plant loads, 471 
Equipment, of power plants and railway motors, 
468, 523 

of 1200-volt, 129 

of single-phase roads, 133 

of three-phase roads, 130 

of electrified steam railroads, 532, 535 

per mile of single track, 427 
Erie Railroad, catenary construction, 452 

earnings with electric traction, 552 

electrification, 552 

grades, 503 

motor cars, 224, 235 

operating expenses, 552 
Errors to avoid in electric traction, 522 
Essential considerations in railroad electri- 
fication, 497 
Esthetic enjoyments, 115 
European electric railroads, 561 
Experimental electric railways, 2 
Experimental work, 1890 to 1895, 10 
Express business, 38 

Farmer, Moses G., 3 

Field coils, 198 

Field, Stephen D., locomotive, 43, 298, 299 

Financial advantages of electric traction, 95 

by-products of electrification, 112 

during business depression, 113 

in competition, 114 
Financial problem in electric traction, 123 
Fire risk, 93 



First electric railways, 2 
First practical electric railways, 8 
First public electric cars, 4 
Flexibility of electric control, 90 

of electric motors and locomotives, 90 

of motor cars, 228, 243 
Fourth rails for contact lines, 458 
France, railways of, 564 
Freight, revenue on electric roads, 39, 40 

haulage on mountain grades, steam, 503 

service on electric roads, 35, 38, 96, 523, 535 

service on trunk lines, 96 
French Southern Ry., electrification, 564 

electric locomotives, 385 
French Western Ry., 564 
Frequent train service, 99 
Frictional resistance of cars and trains, 407 

of electric trains, 408 

of steam locomotives, 409 
Fritch, L. C, 525 

Fuel and motive power expenses, 107 
Fuel saving with electric power, table, 282 
Fuel. See coal. 
Furnaces, at steam power plants, 107, 474 

of steam locomotives, 62 

Gait, Preston & Hespeler locomotives, 329 
Ganz Electric Co., locomotives, 339 

three-phase roads, 134 
Gas-electric power plant installations, 481 
Gases from locomotives, 116 
Gas power plants, 480 

Geared vs. gearless motors and locomotives, 297 
Gearing losses, 202; Gear data, 204 
Gear ratio, effect of change in, 212 
Gears vs. cranks, 295, 299 
General Electric Company: 

controller, 246 

direct-current motors, 190 

gasoline-electric cars, 146 

organized' 9 

single-phase commutator motor, 175 

single-phase locomotives, 381 

single-phase roads, 139 

three-phase locomotives, G. N., 349 

1200-volt roads, 130 
General status of work done in railroad elec- 
trification 531 
Generator, design for 1200 volts direct current, 
132 

single-phase versus three-phase, 147 
German railroads: 

cost of electrical equipment, 519, 520 

electrification, 566 

locomotives, 386 
Gibbs, George, Chicago, 558, New York, 323, 
526, 541 

on locomotive design, 288, 323 

on Long Island R. R. terminal capacity, 8S 
Giovi Railway, Italy: 

catenary line, 452 

electrification, 568 

locomotives, electric, 342 

system of electrification, 133 



INDEX. 



575 



Grades and tractive effort, 407 
Grades on mountains, table, 503 
Gradients, energj^ supplied by, 424 
Grand Trunk Railway: 

electrification, 517, 551 

locomotives, 378 

locomotive motor, 174 

power plant and load factor, 471 
Grate surface of locomotives, 55, 56, 60, 77 

of stationary boilers, 474 
Great Britain, electric railways, 561 
Great Northern Ry.: 

Cascade Tunnel, 88, 554 

contact line, 450 

cost of electrification, 518 

electric railways owned, 554 

locomotives, electric, 349 

locomotives, steam, 55, 77 

^lallet compound locomotive, table, 77, 78 

motors, 351 

system, three-phase, 133 

water power plant, 491 
Great Western Railway, England, 258, 260 
Griffin, Eugene, note on roads of 1887, 48 
Gross earnings. See earnings. 

Hall, Thomas, 2 

Harriman, E. H., re. electric power, 107, 268 

Heating of single-phase motors, 178 

Heat insulators, 475 

Heating of wires, 438 

Heating surface of boilers, 61, 474 

Height of contact wire, 446 

Henderson, G. R., 68, 82 

Henry, John C, electric railway of, 5, 68, 82 

High-voltage transmissions, 443 

Hill, James J., 60, 268 

Historical data, electric cars and locomotives, 

2, 40 
History and Present Status of Electric Traction, 

Chapter I, page 1. 
HobaH, H. M., 151 

Hoboken Shore Railroad locomotives, 309 
Hudson & Manhattan Railroad: 

electrification, 548 

motor cars, 254, 549 

power plant, 487 

reliability, 94 
Human betterment and electric traction, 114 
Hydro electric power plant installations, 484 
Hutchinson, C. T., 88 

Illinois Central Railroad: 

objections to electric traction, 120 

proposed electrification, 557 
Illinois Traction Company, 13 

electric locomotives, 329 

freight service, 37 
Important interurban railways, 13, 15, 18 
Impractical electrifications, 500 
Income account of steam railroads, 101 
Indianapolis and Cincinnati Traction Co., 138, 

151 
Indicator diagrams of locomotives, 74 



Induction motors, three-phase, 164 
Insulation, for third rail, 456 

of motors, 200 
Insulators, 440, 458 
Interboro. Rapid Transit Company: 

capacity and service, 88, 231 

motor cars, 236 

power plant, 487 
Interchangeable or universal systems, 146 
Interference with signal circuits, 120 
Interstate Commerce Commission, 38 
Interurban electric railways, 12, 18 

completion with _steam roads, ^0, 504 

developments, table, 13 

early history, 12 

important roads, by states, 15, 18 

long distance travel, 18 

mileage and train service, 13 

New York-Wisconsin electric railway trip, 18 

passenger traflEic, table, 14 

present status, 13 
Investments increased by electric traction, 108 
Italian State Railway: 

electrification, 133, 568 

Ganz locomotives, 339 

Giovi Railway, 133, 342 

Mt. Cenis tunnel, 471 

system of electrification, 133, 152 

Joint use of tracks, 99 
Journal friction, 202, 299, 407 

Kelvins Law, 438 

Kilowatts input with varying stops per mile, 419 
Kind of service, affect on load factor, 470 
Kinetic energy, 402, 417, 418 

Lake Shore & Michigan Southern. R. R., 560 
Lamme, B. G., Single-phase system, 136 
Lancashire & Yorkshire Ry., 22, 65, 89, 122 

electrification of, 562 
Laws governing transmissions, 437 
Leakage, from third rail, 457 
Length of division, 470 

Leonard-Oerhkon motor-generator, 144, 396 
Lignite coal, 473 
Lilley and Cotton, 2 
Load factor, 71, 468, 478 
Location of steam power plants, 473 
Locomotives, electric: 

acceleration rates, 274 

advantages over motor cars, 284 

advantages over steam loco., 266 

AUgemeine Elektricitats-Gesellschaft, 392 

Baden State, 386 

Baltimore & Ohio, 303 

Bavarian State, 386 

Bernese Alps, 392 

Boston & Maine, 376 

Buffalo & Lockport, 307 

Bush Terminal, 307 

capacity of, 87 

Cascade Tunnel, 349 

center of gravity, of, 287 



576 



INDEX. 



Locomotives, electric: 
Central London, 44 
commercial considerations, 277, 283 
control, 249 
cost of equipment, 285 
cost of electric locomotives, 300 
cost of maintenance, 280 
cost of operation per ton and train-mile, 

103-5-7 
cost of service reduced, 103-5-7, 284 
crank and side rod, 298, 299 
design of, 285 
direct-curaent, 302 
disadvantages of crank design, 299 
drawings, references to, 336, 353, 398 
drawbar pull, 269, 271, 273, 274 
driver diameters, 297 
earnings from investment, 284 
economy of fuel, 281 
economy of power, 281 
Field, S. D., 43 
fire risk, 93 
flexibility of, 90 
freight train haulage, 96 
French Southern, 385 
fuel, 107, 281 

Gait, Preston and Hespeler, 329 
geared, 297 
gearless motors, axle mounted, 297 

quill mounted, 297 
gears versus cranks, 295 
General Electric, experimental, 381 
German State, 386 
Giovi Railway, 342 
Grand Trunk Railway, 378 
Great Northern Railway, 349 
high grade freight service, 96 
high voltages, 285 
historical locomotives, 3, 40 
Hoboken Shore, 309 
horse power per ton, 276, 291, 292 
Illinois Traction, 329 
Italian State, 339 
Leonard-Oerlikon, 396 
list of all electric locomotives, 302, 338, 

354, 355 
load factor, discussion of, 468 
Loetschberg Tunnel, Bernese Alps, 109 
maintenance and repairs, 279, 280 
maintenance decreased, 278 
mechanical data on, 187, 289, 290 
mechanical efficiency of, 277 
mechanical transmission of power, 295 
Metropolitan Railway, England, 332 
michigan Central, 318 
midi Railway, France, 385 
mileage of electric locomotives, 276 
motor connections, 295 
motors for, 187, 189 
mountain grade service, 503 
New York Central, 310 
New York, New Haven & Hartford, 361 
North American Co., 298 
North Bristol (turbine), 81 



Locomotives, electric: 

nosing characteristics, 271 

noise, 116, 277 

North-Eastern, 331 

number of, 48, 278, 303 

Oerhkon, 393' 

Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean (permutator) , 
397 , 

Paris-Orleans, 332 

Pennsylvania experimental, 321, 357 

Pennsylvania, at New York, 322 

Philadelphia & Reading, 309 

physical characteristics, 268, 277 

power per ton, 276, 291, 292 

Prussian State Railway, 386 

relation of speed to driver diameter, 296 

refiability, 94 

repairs and maintenance, 278 

Rombacher-Huette, 234 

safety with, 91 

Saint Georges de Commiers a la Mure, 335 

St. Polten-Mariazell, 396 

Santa Fe Gergal locomotives, 338 

Savona San Guiseppe Ry. 338, 343 

Shawinigan Falls Terminal Ry., 382 

side rod and crank, 298 

Siemens, 339 

simplicity of, 91 

Simple n Tunnel 346 

single-phase, fist of, 354 

smoke, 116, 277 

Southern or Midi, 385 

speed, ma?:imum and schedule, 275 

speed, unification of, 275 

Spokane & Inland Empire, 359 

St. Clair Tunnel, 378 

Swedish State, 382 

Swiss Federal, 346 

tables of electric locomotives, 302, 338, 
354, 355 

three-phase, 338 

torque of motors, 270 

train weights, 272 

turbine type, 81 

Valtelfina, 339 

Visafia Electric, 307 

wages saved by, 281 

weight factor of, 291, 292, 293, 294 

weight of electric equipment, 191, 192, 193 

Westinghouse Interworks, 358 

Westinghouse. See technical descriptions. 

Winter-Eichberg, 175 
Locomotives, steam: 

American Locomotive Co., 64 

arches in furnaces of fire brick, 62 

articulated type, 53 

Atlantic type, 53 

back pressure, 73 

balanced type, 53 

Baltimore & Ohio (Mallets), 77 

boilers, 58 

capacity of, 59 

center of gravity of, 58 

characteristics of, 57 



INDEX. 



577 



Locomotives, steam: 

classification of wheels, 55 

clearance, in cylinders, 73 

coal consumption, 63 

coal, economy of, 70 

coal per i. h. p. hour, 83 

coal per ton-mile and train-mile. 82, 83, 281 

coal waste by locomotives, 70 

compensated t^-pes. 53 

compound, 75 

condensation in cylinders, 63 

consolidation, type, 52 

cost of operation, 82, 83 

data on proportions, 56 

decapods, 52 

design, 59 

drawbar pull, 61 

economy of coal, 71 

economy of compounds, 76 

eight wheel or American, 52 

evaporation rate, 63 

expansion of steam, 73 

fire brick arches, 62 

friction losses, 65 

furnace conditions, 62 

grate surface, 55, 55, 60, 77 

Great Northern, table on, 57 

Great Northern (Mallet), 77 

heating surface, 61 

heat radiation, 63 

horse power per ton, 61 

Hill, James J., 60 

indicator diagrams, 72 

indicated horse power, 62 

initial steam pressure, 72 

load factor of, 71 

loss of pressure, 72 

Mallet compound, 53, 76 

maintenance of, 83 

mean effective pressure and speed, 73 

mechanical data, 56 

mechanical strains in boilers, 67 

New York Central, pacific type, 66, 271, 

274, 414 
nosing, 65, 271, 288 
number or list, 55 
operating characteristic-;, 62 
operation of boilers and engines, 64 
Pacific type, 53 
Pennsylvania tests, 66 
piston speed, 61, 72 
points of cut-off, 73 
physical characteristics, 57 
repairs and renewals, 67, 68, 84 
repairs per locomotive year, 83 
rigid wheel base, 58 
Santa Fe (Mallets), 78 
self-contained power units, 57 
simple engines, 58 
smoke, 116,277 
Southern Pacific (Mallet?), and tests, 78, 

79, 81 
speed of trains limited, 67 
speed- torque characteristics, 71 



Locomotives, steam: 

stand-by losses, 63 

steam consumption, 69 

superheating 69, 

steam locomotives in United States, 56 

temperatures, effect of, 64, 271 

ten wheelers, 52 

test, on New York Central, 66 
on Pennsylvania, 66 
on simple engine, 72 
on Southern Pacific Mallet, 81 

torque, 61 

track destruction, 65 

tractive effort, 61 

turbine locomotive, Glasgow, 81 

unbalanced forces in drivers, 64 

valve gear, 73 

water supply, 57 

wear on track, 65 

weather rating, 64 

weight, 59 

wheel base, 58 

wheel classification, 57 

work done in cylinders, 75 
London, Brighton & South Coast Ry. : 

earnings with electric traction, 112 

motors, 177 

motor-car train, 238, 263 
See Dawson 
London Electric Railways, 158, 263, 492 
Long Island Railroad: 

electrification, 88, 543 

gross earnings, 112 

motor-car trains, 244, 251 

operating data, 1908, 545 

power plant, 488 

results of electrification, 88, 112, 544 
Losses at motors, 420 
Losses beyond motors, 421 
Luxury of electrification, 123 
Lyford, 0. S., Jr., on Long Inland Railroad, 544 



Mailloux, C. O., 40, 408, 431 
Maintenance, of contact lines, 460 

of locomotives electric, 278, 280 

of locomotives steam, 68, 83 

of motors, 239 

of motor cars, 236, 239 

of motor cars per car-mile, table, 329 

of track and ways, 103 

per electric locomotive mile, 280 
.Manhattan Elevated R. R., 88, HI, 237, 283 
Mechanical data: 

on electric locomotives, table, 289 

on motors, 187 

on steam locomotives, 56 
Mechanical efficiency of locomotives, 277 
Mechanical transmission of power, 295 
Mechanics of current collection, 446 
Mellin,C.S., 21, 101,539 
Mercury arc rectifiers, 135, 143 
Mersey Railway, 104, 561 
Metropolitan Railway, England, 332 



578 



INDEX. 



Michigan Central R. R.: 
electrification, 551 
locomotives, electric, 318 
motors, 190, 196 
Midi Railway, France, 385, 564 
Midland Railway, England, 152, 562 
Milan- Varese Railway, 521, 568 
Mileage, definition, vii 

of electric locomotives, 276 

of freight roads and revenue, 39 

of interurban railways, 16, 18 

of railroads operating motor-car trains, 

256, 263 
of railroads operating divisions by elec- 
tricity, 499, 532 
of 750- to 2000-volt roads, 129 
of single-phase railways, 138, 144 
of third-rail roads, 28 
See also car mileage. 
Milwaukee Northern Ry., 490 
Milwaukee Railway, Light & Power Co., 139 
Minneapolis-St. Paul, 9, 13, 14 
converter installations, 131 
motor repairs, 237 
power plant, 489 
single-phase experiments, 137 
Van Depoele electric railway, 5 
See Twin City Rapid Transit Co. 
Motive power and power required for motor-car 

trains, table, 429 
Motors, AlHs-Chalmers, 192 

A. I. E. E. standardization, 182 
armature speed, 201 
capacity, 182, 183 
center of gravity and weight, 104 
classification, 160 
commutators, 200 
comparison of motors, 181 
control, cascade, 217 
circuit, 215 
efficiency, 148 
field, 216 
Leonard's, 218 
losses, 148 
series-parallel, 215 
voltage, 218 
cycles, 15 or 25, 212 

advantages and disadvantages of, 213 
Deri, 176, 220 
development of motor design, 194 
air gap, 198 
armatures, 199 

quill suspension, 208 
speed, 201 
winding, 199 
axles, 203 
bearings, 202 
brushes, 200 
commutating poles, 197 
commutators, 200 
crank rod locomotive, 209 
enclosures, 197 
field coils, 198 
gearing, 202 



Motors, development of magnet frames, 194 

suspension, 204 

Gibbs cradle, 204 
nose, 205 
Walker, 205 
yoke, 205 
direct current, 161 

advantages and disadvantages of, 161 

commutating pole motors, 188 

series, 161 

speed, 211 

torque, 210, 270 

1200-volt, 129, 130, 270 

Westinghouse, 500-600 volt, 194 
gearing ratio and driver diameters, 212 
General Electric motors, 190 
mechanical and electrical data, 187 
poles, 197 

rating, 182, 185, 186, 187 
selection of motor capacity, 186 
Siemens Brothers motors, 192 
single-phase motors, 169 

advantages and disadvantages, 177 

control, 214 

Deri, 176, 220 

15 and 25 cycles, 189, 212 

general characteristics, 171 

Grand Trunk locomotive motors, 174 

heating, 178 

repulsion types, 169, 174 

series types, 169, 270 

Steinmetz, re. single-phase motors, 180 

torque, 179, 210, 270 

Visaha locomotive motor, 173 

weight, 179, 193 

Winter-Eichberg, 175 
sparking, 197 
speed of armatures, 201 
speed-torque characteristics, 209 
three-phase motors, advantages of, 165 
^^_air gap, 167 

control, 216 

efficiency, 168 

motor-car train operation, 168 

objectionable characteristics, 166 

power required with different systems, 
166 

standard motors, 189 

torque, 168, 210, 270 

trucks, 209 

weight, 192 
ventilation, 183 
voltages, 180, 211 
weight, 148 

Westinghouse motors, 191, 194 
Motor-cars, acceleration rates, 229 
Berlin-Zossen, 208 
characteristics, 228 
comparison of train weights, electric and 

steam, 242 
control, 243, 245, 249 
cost of motor-cars with equipment, 240 
cost of operation, 238, 241, 243 
definition of, 32 



INDEX. 



579 



Motor-cars, development, 225 

distribution of motive power, 231 

distribution of weight, 231 

drawbar pull, 230 

economy of operation, 236 

flexibility, 228, 243 

fuel and power, 238, 243 

high schedule speed, 230 

history of, 22, 23 

independence, 231 

investment, 243 

list of motor-car trains, 256, 263 

Long Island R. R., cars per train, 244 

maintenance of electric cars per car-mile, 240 

maintenance of equipment, 236 

maintenance of motors per car-mile, 239 

maintenance of ways and structures, 236 

mileage of, 240 

New York Central motor-car truck, 227 

reliability, 231 

safety, 231 

service in America aad Europe, 226 

similarity of equipment, 231 

wages, 237 
Motor-car Trains, Chapter VI, page, 224 

versus locomotives, 242 

versus single motor cars, 243 
Mountain grade lines, 33 

electrification of, 501 
Mt. Cenis Tunnel, 133, 471, 569 
Muhlfeld, J. E., 77 
Multiple-unit operation, 249 
Murray, W. S., 276, 283, 368, 376, 526 

New York Central R. R. : 

by-products of electrification, 112 

capacity of terminal, 88, 106 

commission of engineers, 541 

competition, 21 

cost of electrification, 514, 516, 522 

electrification, 542 

freight terminals, 34, 542 

Grand Central Station, 98 

interurban roads, 21 

locomotives, electric, 310 

locomotives, steam, 66, 414 

motor-car trains, 250 

motor-car truck, 227 

operating expenses, 542 

power plant, 486 

reliability of service, 94 

system adopted, 541 

transmission losses, 434 
New York, New Haven & Hartford R. R.: 

Boston, development at, 540 

catenary construction, 453 

cost of electrification: 

Boston terminal zone, 514 
New York division, 514, 537 

financial and traffic statistics, 539 

freight and passenger electric locomotive 
data, 375 

Grand Central Station, use of, 537 

Harlem Branch, freight yards, 35, 375, 539 



New York, New Haven & Hartford R. R.: 

interurban roads, 21 

locomotives, electric, 361 

locomotive, steam, 82, 83, 279, 283 

McHenry, E. H., 539 

Mellin, C.S,2\, 101, 539 

motor-car trains, 251, 538 

motors for cars and locomotives, 189, 193, 
201, 204 

Murray, W. S., 368, 376, 526 

operating expenses, 538 

performance characteristics of motor-car 
trains, 253 

power plant, 485 

power plant load, 470 

power required for trains, 429 

reliability of service, 95 

system of electrification, 537 

third rail, 27, 537 

truck used on naotor-car trains, 252 
New York Subway, 88, 487 
New York- Wisconsin electric railway trip, 18 
New York, West Chester and Boston, 138, 263, 

539 
Noise from steam locomotives, 116 
Norfolk and Western, 560 
North American locomotive, 43, 298 
North Bristol turbine locomotive, 81 
North-Eastern Railway: 

electrification, 562 

locomotives, 331 

motor-cars, 40 

service, 89 
Northern Electric Co.: 

locomotives, electric, 38, 336. ; Edwards, 222 
Northern Pacific R. R., 503, 560 
Nose suspension of motors, 204 
Nosing of locomotives, 65, 271, 288 
Norway, electrification of roads, 564 
Number of hours of service of power plants per 

day, 460 
Number of power plants required, 475, 523 
Number of trains, and load factor, 469 

Objectionable characteristics of electric traction, 

117 
Oerlikon, combinations of systems, 144 

Bernese-Alps R. R. locomotive, 392 

locomotives with motor-generator, 144 

.single-phase roads, 141, 144 
Ohio and Indiana interurbans, 517 
Operation of steam locomotives, 62, 70 

Atlantic type locomotives, 66 

expenses increased, 108 

expenses of steam railroads, 101 

See speed-torque characteristics. 
Operating expenses per train mile, decreased by 

electric traction, 101 

fuel and power, 102 

maintenance of equipment, 105 

maintenance of ways, 103 

of steam railroads, table, 101 

repairs and renewals of steam locomotives, 
68, 83 



580 



INDEX. 



Operating, time saved, 323 

Operation and maintenance of electric systems, 

151 
Operators in steam plants, 475 
Oregon Electric Ry., 38, 555 
Oregon Short Line, 560 
Overhead system. See contact lines. 
Overhead third rail, 456 



Pacific Electric Ry., freight service, 38 

Page, C.G.,2 

Painting of corroded steel, 105 

Pantographs, 446 

Paris, Lyons and Med. Ry., 397, 564 

Paris Metropolitan Ry., 31, 123, 519 

Paris-Orleans Ry., 123, 332, 519, 564 

Passenger traffic attracted, 96 

Patronage on railroads, 22 

Pattison, Hugh, 526, 558 

Pennsylvania Railroad: 

experimental locomotive, 320, 357 

locomotives at New York, 329 

locomotives, steam, 66 

motor-car trains, 50 

motors, 184, 208 

New York Tunnel and Terminal, 31, 545 

Philadelphia Terminal, 548 

See Long Island Railroad 

See West Jersey & Seashore Railroad. 
Performance characteristics. See speed-torque 
characteristics of loconaotives, under Tech- 
nical Descriptions . 
Permutator, or rectifier, 145 
Peters, Ralph, Long Island R. R., 112 
Philadelphia & Reading R. R., 309 
Physical advantages of electric traction, 87, 

498 
Physical characteristics of steam locomotives, 

57 
Pittsburg and Butler motor-car train, 234 
Pittsburg, Harmony, Butler and New Castle 

motor-car train, 233 
Pole change in motors, 217 
Poles, cost of wooden, 458 
Poles of direct-current motors, 421 
Pomeroy, L. R., 279 
Portland Ry. & Lt. Co., 38 
Power curves of motors, 421 
Power equipment of steam roads, 467, 507 
Power equipment per mile of single track, 427 
Power plant installations, steam, 473, 480 

dependence on, 119 

gas-electric, 481 

hydroelectric, 484 

load factor, 468 

number of plants required, 475 

technical descriptions, 485 
Power Required for Trains, Chapter XI, p. 400 

equipment per mile of single track, 427 

for acceleration, 417, 418 

for auxiliaries, 420 

for cars per ton mile, table, 429 

for electric locomotive hauled trains, 414 



Power for New York, New Naven & Hartford 
trains, 429 

for trains per ton mile, table, 429 

frictional resistance tables, 409, 415 

losses at motors, 420 

per mile of track, 427 

per ton mile and car mile, 429 

regeneration of, 424 

summary on, 427 

tractive resistance, 407, 408 

transmission, 148 

weight of cars, 403 

with different systems, table, 166 
Practical street railways, 8 
Private right-of-way, 23 

advantages and disadvantages of, 23, 24 

economic results, 24 

importance of, 24 
Procedure in Railroad Electrification, Chapter 

XIV, 497 
Proportions of steam locomotives, 56 
Prussian State Ry., locomotives, 386 
Puget Sound Electric Ry., 37 

Quill suspension of motor armatures, 208 

Railroads, definition of, vii, 532 

electrification in competition, 504 

electrification of. Chapter XV, 530 

mountain grades on, 33, 503 

operating branches by electricity, 45, 532, 
534 

statistics on earnings of steam railroads, 48 

switching yards, 35 

terminal electrification, 34, 88, 97 
Rails, broken by steam locoinotives, 65. 
Rails, impedance data, 438, 461 
Railways, definition of, vii 

early electric, 1884, 1888, 7 

elevated railways, 25 

interurbans of each state, 15, 18 

operating miotor-car trains, 258, 263 

practical electric, 188, 8 

suburban, 10 

table of deveolpment, 13 

third-rail, 26 
Rating of motors, 182, 187 
Rating of electric locomotive motors, compared, 

186 
Rating of railway motors with forced draft, 185 
Reasons for electrification, 498, 499 
Reciprocating motion versus circumferential, 65, 

81, 91, 104 
Rectifier plans, 133, 145 
Regeneration of energy, 92, 424, 426 

with direct-current motors, 425 

with single-phase motors, 426 

with three-phase motors, 425 
Relation between steam pressure and speed, 73 
Relative advantages of electric systems, 147 
Relative equipment of power plants and railway 

motors, 468 
Reliability of electric service, 94, 476, 483 



INDEX. 



581 



Repairs and renewals of steam locomotives, 68, 

84 
Repulsion motors, 174 
Resistance, of air, 407, 409 

of copper wire, 438 

of curves, 413, 414 

of motors, 216 

tractive, 407 
Retardation rates, 417 
Revenue of freight roads, 39, 96 
Rheostats, water, 340, 343 
Rigid wheel base, steam locomotives, 58 
Rock Island Southern motor car trains, 235 
Rosenthal, L.W., 439 

Rombacher-Huette Ry. locomotives, 334 
Rotterdam-Hague-Scheveningen Ry. electrifica- 
tion, 263, 565 

motor-car train, 260 

Safety in electric traction, 91 

St. Clair Tunnel. See Grand Trunk Railway. 

St. Georges de Commiers a la Mure, 335 

St. Louis and Belleville, 44 

St. Paul. See Minneapolis. 

St. Polten-Mariazell locomotive, 396 

Santa Fe Gergal Ry., 133, 565 

Savona Ceva Railway, 343, 569 

Schedule speed of trains, 405 

Seebach Wettingen electrification, 355, 396, 567 

Selection of motor capacity, 186 

Series motors, 161 

Series-parallel control, 215 

Shawinigan Falls Terminal Ry. locomotives, 382 

Shepard, F. H., multiple-unit control, 247 

Shepardson, Geo. D., railway motor tests, 49, 219 

Short Electric Company, 9 

Shunt motors, 11, 425 

Side-bar suspension of motors, 205 

Side rods on locomotives, 298; on Pittsburg cars, 

301 
Siemens & Halske, experimental locomotive of 
1879, 3, 339 

first commercial roads, 4 

single-phase railways, 141, 142 

three-phase railways, 134 
Siemens-Schuckert locomotive, 339 
Simplicity of electric traction, 91 
Simplon Tunnel, catenary construction, 450 

locomotives, electric, 346 
Sinclair, Angus, 69 
Single-phase motors, 169, 189 

commutators, 178 

control, 177, 218, 248, 253 

list of motors, 187 

series-compensated and repulsion, 169, 175 

weight, 179, 193 
Single-phase systems, 136 

motor-car trains, hst of, 256 

railway installations, 138, 143 
Sixty cycle for motors on locomotives or motor 

cars, 144, 213, 214 
Smith, W. N., .525, .528 

Smoke and gases from locomotives, 116, 277 
Social advantages of electric traction, 114 



Southern Pacific, cost of electrification, 519, 555 

grades, 503 

Mallet locomotives, and tests, 78, 81 
Southern Ry. See French Southern. 
South Side Elevated R., Chicago, 25 
Spain, railroad electrifications, 565 
Speed of armatures, peripheral, 201 
Speed of motors, 201 
Speed of railway trains, 201, 291, 405 
Speed of trains increased A^dth electric traction, 

405 
Speed-time curves, 421 
Speed- torque or operating characteristics: 

Bernese Alps Ry., 395 

Boston & Maine eectric locomotives, 377 

electric locomotives, 270, 273 

Grand Trunk electric locomotives, 380 

Michigan Central locomotives, 321 

New Haven & Hartford locomotives, 366, 36 - 

New Haven & Hartford motor-cars, 253 

New York Central locomotives, 316 

Pennsylvania locomotives, 328 

Simplon Tunnel locomotives, 349 

Southern Pacific (Mallet) locomotives, 78, 81 

Southern Railway, France, 385 

Spokane & Inland locomotives, 361 

steam locomotives, 71, 75 
Spokane & Inland Empire R. R., 359 
Sprague, Frank J., at Richmond, 

electric lines in 1890, 8, 42 

on control plan, 33, 245, 249 

on electric systems, 153 

motor-car train, 238 

on locomotives nosing, 288 

on New York Central locomotive, 288, 312 

on regeneration of energy, 425 

technical papers. See literature. 
Sprague-General Electric control, 246 
Standardization of-motors, A. I. E. E., 182 
Statistics of steam and electric railways, 48 
Steam, Gas, and Water Power Plants, Chapter 

XIII, 466 
Steam turbines, 474 
Steam turbine locomotives, 81 
Steam and electric railway statistics, summary, 48 
Steel towers for transmission lines, *444 
Steinmetz, C. P., on contact lines, 448 

on New Haven electrification, 180 

on single-phase motors, 176, 180 
Stillwell, L. B., 278, 283, 301, 430 

on electric systems, 153 
Storage batteries, 146 
Storer, N. W., 167, 301 
Suburban roads, 10, 101 
Subways and tunnels, 30, 32 
Superheat, 69, 474 
Suspension of motors, 204 
Sweden and Norway, electrification, 563 
Swedish State Railway: 

electrification, 563 

locomotives, 382 
Swiss Federal Railway: 

electric system, 133 

electrification, .567 



582 



INDEX. 



Swiss Federal Railway: 
locomotives, 346 
power required for all trains, 430 
Switchwork and yards, 35, 449 
Switzerland, railroad electrification, 567 
Syracuse, Lake Shore & Northern, 452 
Systems of Electrification, Chapter IV, 126 
advantages and disadvantages, of each 

system, 147 
choice of, 127, 154 
classification, 127 
coinbination, 144 
direct-current, advantages of, 148 

development of, 128 

table of 750 to 2000- volt roads, 129 

table of 1200- to 1500-volt roads, 130 
interchangeable, 146 
mercury arc, 133 
permutator plans, 145 
power plant, 492 
rectifier plan, 133, 145 
single-phase, advantages of, 149 

development, 136 

equipment of roads, 138, 143 

list of roads, 138, 139, 141, 143 

status of railway work, 127 

summary of roads, 144 
three-phase, advantages of, 149 

development of, 134 

equipment of roads, 135 

Italian State, 152 

list of roads, 135 
three- wire, 128 

Technical Descriptions: 

contact lines, 449 

direct-current locomotives. Chapter VIII, 
303 

motor-car trains, 224 

power plants, 485 

proposed electrifications, 556 

single-phase locomotives. Chapter X, 354 

three-phase locomotives. Chapter IX, 328 
Temperature and power, 64, 271,502 
Terminals of railways, 25, 34, 97 

capacity and traffic, 97 

electrification, 497, 524 
Third-rail, roads, lists, 26 

Baltimore & Ohio, 26, 303, 550 

capacity of shoes, 446 

contact lines, 455 

contact surface, 447 

cost of, 458, 460 

development of, 26 

disadvantages of, 457 

insulation, 456 

maintenance cost, 460 

New York, New Haven & Hartford, 27 

overhead third rails, 456 

return conductors, 458 

table of roads, 28, 29 

1200- volt, 130 

voltages on, 456 
Thom,son, Elihu, electric controller, 9 



Thomson-Houston Electric Co., 9 
Three-phase, alternating-current systems, 133 

electric locomotives, list, 328 

motor control, 214, 218 

railroad equipment and mileage, 135, 621 
Three- wire systems, 128 
Thury Electric Railway, 335 
Toledo & Western R. R., 36 
Ton-mileage of electric railways, 535 
Torque, of direct-current motors, 210 

of single-phase motors, 179, 210 

of three-phase motors, 168, 210, 270 

See drawbar pull. 
Towers, cost of steel, 458 
Track destruction, 65, 104, 206 
Track mileage. See mileage. 
Tractive coefficient, 406 
Tractive effort for railway trains, 469 
Tractive resistance, 407, 408 
Train capacity of elevated and underground 

roads, 26 
Train-mile data on operating expenses of steam 

roads, 83, 107, 280 
Train service and equipment of electric roads, 532, 

533, 534 
Transmission and Contact Lines, Chapter XII, 432 

cost of, 458 

design of apparatus, 435 

development of high voltages, 436 

energy losses, 433 

on electric roads, 148, 478, 508 
New York Central, 424 
West Jersey & Seashore, 434 

engineering, 439, 441 

high voltages, 439, 441 

high- voltage transmissions, 443 

impedance and resistance, 438 

laws governing, 437 

losses, 119, 434 

pantographs, 446 

status of development, 433 

steel tower, 444 
Trolley wheels, 446. See contact line. 
Trucks. See descriptions of locomotives. 
Tunnel roads, 30, 31, 92 
Tunnel data, 31 
1200-volt railways, 130 
Twin City Rapid Transit Co. : 

power plant, 489 

repairs of motors, 237 

rotary converter installation, 1897, 132 

See Minneapolis-St. Paul. 

Unbalanced forces of locomotives, 64 

See reciprocating inotion. 
Underground Electric Railway, London: 

motor-car train, 258, 260 
Underground roads using electric power, 31 
Universal electric systems, 146 

Valatin, Bela, 342, 569 

Valtellina Line of Italian State Railway, 568 

catenary construction, 450 

cost of electrification, 521 



INDEX 



583 



Valtellina, locomotives, 339 

motor-car trains, 253 

motors, 209 

powerplant load factor, 468 

system used, 133, 152 

truck for motor cars, 254 

See GioA-i Railway 
Van Depoele, 3, 4, 5, 200 
Variety of ser\'ice, 471 
Ventilation of motors, 183 
Verola, M., on systems, 152, 569 
Visalia Electric, locomotives, 377 

motors, 173 
Voltage, control, 218 

drop in circuits, 438 

of high-voltage transmissions, 443 

of transmission and contact lines, 437 

Wages decreased -with electric traction, 105 
Walker spring suspension, 205 
Walschaert valve gear, 73 
Ward-Leonard locomotive and system, 396 
Washington, Baltimore & Annapolis: 

direct-current system, 140 

single-phase system, 139 
Water power plants, 481 
Water supply, 473, 482 
Water tube boilers, 474 
Waterman, F. N., 472 
Watt hours per car mile, 429 
Watt hours per ton mile, 421 
Weather ratings of locomotives, 64, 271 
Weight, analysis of electric locomotives, 293 

factor of electric locomotives, 291, 292, 293 

of cars, 403 

of direct-current, railway motors, 190 



Weight, of locomotives per foot of base, 56, 290 

of motor-car train, distribution of, 231 

of single-phase motors, 148, 179, 193 

of steam locomotives, 57 

of three-phase locomotive motors, 192 

per dri\'ing axle, 57, 289 
Western Railway of France, 564 
Westinghouse Company, 9, 138, 141, 142 

control for trains, 246 

data on motors, 191, 194 

single-phase motors, 193 

single-phase railways, 138, 141, 142 
Westinghouse, George, 286 
Westinghouse Interworks locomotive, 356 
West Jersey & Seashore R. R. : 

earnings and expenses, 112, 547 

electric system, 547 

electrification, 516, 546 

motor cars, 256, 547 

motor-car train, 232 

motor-car truck, 232, 255 

power plant, 488, 547 

reasons for electrification, 546 

transmission and contact line, 000 

transmission losses, 434 
West Shore R. R. electrification, 543 

motor-car train, 233 
Wheel base of locomotives, 58 
Wheels, driver diameters, 297 
Wilgus, W.J., 88 

Wilkes- Barre & Hazel ton Railroad, 16, 28, 256 
Winter-Eichberg motor, 175 
Work Done in Railroad Electrification, Chapter 

XV, 530 

Yoke suspension of motors, 205 



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